Akzle’s Policy Page, Discussion / Q&A

[Akzle]

Obviously, you should vote akzle just because. But I thought i'd get a bit more formal on it. Will update as I think of it.

Foremost, I'm revoking everyone's right to everything. You may be killed by the state (me) for any reason whatsoever. Until such time as we can have this shit nutted out, when everyone will take responsibility for themselves.

Transport and Licensing
- All driver licenses are null and void effective immediately. (Everyone must re-sit under new framework)
- Motorcyclists are exempt from all traffic legislation.
- The penalty for most traffic infrigngements will be having the car crushed, regardless of the registered person.
- Driver licensing will be done in two stages, not three :- Learner; Driver
- “Full licenses” will be of four classes and based on competency:
P – Professional, Trained, Truck, Taxi Drivers
A – The best civillian classification
B – Intermediary civillian classification
C – The lowest civillian classification
- Two optional plates available for people who don’t wish to advertise their competency (or lack of):
W – People with a vagina will be eligible for a W(oman) plate
E – People over 60 will be eligible for an E(lederly) plate
Conditions attached to plate classes
A, P – Has free use of the roads, speed limits do not apply.
B – Limited to the current speed limits and single-digit state highways.
C – Limited to the municipal boundaries where they live.
-Every driver must carry their own plates (similar to L plates) and affix them to the vehicle they’re driving.
- If drivers are observed behaving in a manner below their plate, they may be shot.
- Courier drivers must wear a a shock collar. Remote controls available for A and P holders.
- In the first instance: red lights will trigger tyre spikes, anyone who gets spiked will be responsible for all costs involved. Later to be replaced by self-clearing wrecking ball system
- Anyone being the “nose” in nose-to-tail accidents will be crushed.

Medicine, Health &c
- All drugs are legal, effective immediately.
- Synthetic drugs will be assessed and phased out where apropriate.
- The government will farm and refine all medicinal products insofar as possible. AND develop facilities to to synthesise the remainder.
- Anyone may grow their own medicine.
- Everyone incarcerated for drug offences will be eligible to apply to have their case reviewed, with a view to release.
- “Fat” is no longer a medical problem and no help will be available for fatasses.

Miscellany
- jews (having the definition: lawyers, bankers, investment brokers and anyone who profits from usury, debt &c) may be hunted for sport from July through June. Hunting permits available from DOC.
- Currency and debt based economoney to be phased out.
- "crown" government structure to be phased out.

Law and Order
- “Castle law” will be implemented – anyone thieving may be shot by anyone.

Public Service Roles
- Politicians will be on minimum wage, their families lose all "benefits" - this should incentivise them to make decisions for the benefit of everyone and remove it as a viable career for jew cunts who want to funnel govt monies to their other private interests.
- Police will be re-vetted with a view to getting rid of the dickheads.
- Police will be trained to carry and use firearms.

Education
- The overfemisined indoctiniation/schooling system will be getting overhauled to actually educate.

Environment
- Aerial dispersion of Sodium monofluroacetate ("1080") will be banned immediately.
- Commercial fishing quotas revoked.
- "One way door" system on domestic rubbish. Kerbside collection to cease. if you bring it on to your property you have to dispose of it there, or arrange to get it to a tip.
- Dumped rubbish will be recovered and sent back to it's domestic source, at their cost. Anyone caught dumping rubbish will be shot.
We don't need anymore chinese plastic shit in our landfills.
- De-centralise services. Water collection, electricity generation etc to be incorporated into all new builds and retro-fitted to existing - will minimise infrastructure wear/loading; provide better redundancy and faster, higher resolution recovery in case of failures;

Climate change
- It has, it does, it will. Evolve or die.
- It is expected with less drivers on the road, and less need for trucks, measurable impact will be made
- Lightweight and more environmentally friendly alternatives to cement to be developed.

Womens Rights, Maori Rights, Immigrants Rights, blahblahblah
- All separatist bullshit and not to be encouraged. there will be no "quotas" for employing women, darkies, wallahs etc
A vagina is not a qualification, nor is your melanin content.
- Te Tiriti is a contract between "the crown" (a fictitious entity registered on the us securities exchange - nothing to do with liz) and "maori" (that meet a certain percentage blood quotient or can rattle off a convincing sounding whakapapa) so they can wank on about it as much as they like.
it's nothing to do with me, and the previous settlements haven't achieved anything for te tangata, only the old jewmatua.
- White folk will, however, be provided a one way ticket to england if they promise to never ever come back.

WINZ
- will be phased out.
- electricity is not a right, you can do laundry in a bucket, you don't need sky TV and you can light a candle if you want to stay up after dark.
- much aligned with george carlin's thinking - "tiny house" modules will be dropped on golf courses and turned into slums/social housing.
- "work for benefit" schema will be introduced immediately, and probably to do a lot of the jobs local council pays for.
- having a vagina is not a qualification, having kids if you can't afford it will result in both parties (where known, otherwise only the mother) being neutered.

[Voltaire]

and you repeatedly call Cassina a fuckwit.:tugger:

Usual pointless drivel.

Don't forget to leave red rep....adds to your awesomeness.:lol:

[crack]

But wouldnt accept my drivel, I am now Paranoid that they are out to get me!


Obviously, you should vote akzle just because. But I thought i'd get a bit more formal on it. Will update as I think of it.

Transport and Licensing
- All driver licenses are null and void effective immediately. (Everyone must re-sit under new framework)
- Motorcyclists are exempt from all traffic legislation.
- The penalty for most traffic infrigngements will be having the car crushed, regardless of the registered person.
- Driver licensing will be done in two stages, not three :- Learner; Driver
- “Full licenses” will be of four classes and based on competency:
P – Professional, Trained, Truck, Taxi Drivers
A – The best civillian classification
B – Intermediary civillian classification
C – The lowest civillian classification
- Two optional plates available for people who don’t wish to advertise their competency (or lack of):
W – People with a vagina will be eligible for a W(oman) plate
E – People over 60 will be eligible for an E(lederly) plate
Conditions attached to plate classes
A, P – Has free use of the roads, speed limits do not apply.
B – Limited to the current speed limits and single-digit state highways.
C – Limited to the municipal boundaries where they live.
-Every driver must carry their own plates (similar to L plates) and affix them to the vehicle they’re driving.
- If drivers are observed behaving in a manner below their plate, they may be shot.
- Courier drivers must wear a a shock collar. Remote controls available for A and P holders.
- In the first instance: red lights will trigger tyre spikes, anyone who gets spiked will be responsible for all costs involved.
- Anyone being the “nose” in nose-to-tail accidents will be crushed.

Medicine, Health &c
- All drugs are legal, effective immediately.
- Synthetic drugs will be assessed and phased out where apropriate.
- The government will farm and refine all medicinal products insofar as possible.
- Anyone may grow their own medicine.
- Everyone incarcerated for drug offences will be eligible to apply to have their case reviewed, with a view to release.
- “Fat” is no longer a medical problem and no help will be available for fatasses.

Miscellany
- jews (having the definition: lawyers, bankers, investment brokers and anyone who profits from usury, debt &c) may be hunted for sport from July through June. Hunting permits available from DOC.

Law and Order
- “Castle law” will be implemented – anyone thieving may be shot by anyone.
- Police will be re-vetted with a view to getting rid of the dickheads.
- Police will be trained to carry and use firearms.

[AllanB]

You may need to reconsider the hunting period, as it is smack in Winter and most NZ Jews will be offshore at their European holiday houses sunning their arses for a month and banging the nanny or pool boy.

[Akzle]

You may need to reconsider the hunting period, as it is smack in Winter and most NZ Jews will be offshore at their European holiday houses sunning their arses for a month and banging the nanny or pool boy.

ehh? it's 12 months of the year...

[AllanB]

ehh? it's 12 months of the year...


Oops - my bad - Saturday morning, brain is clearly turned off!

To be fair I was probably distracted by the nanny bending over ..........

[jellywrestler]

- “Fat” is no longer a medical problem and no help will be available for fatasses.


just narrow the doors at mcdonalds and kfc, that should be a good start

[Akzle]

just narrow the doors at mcdonalds and kfc, that should be a good start

shit fast food will be banned.

any that remain will be limited to 1km of bars and clubs and only open during hours of darkness.

and there will be a cattle crush and scales to walk over to get in, with a big led readout.

[skippa1]

Oops - my bad - Saturday morning, brain is clearly turned off!

To be fair I was probably distracted by the nanny bending over ..........
Pics please

[crack]

At their holiday home, and maybe banging the Nanny:

But I doubt the pool boy:

Those from across their homeland boarder! would be banging the pool boy, the goat, sheep, dog,camel:

Hunting season for 12 months of the year with a bounty on, CEOs, Mullahs, Goat and Sheep shaggers, (Aussies included), UN leaders, Bankers & Economists, Politicians, Rapists, and Child Molesters, OPEC leaders, All LGBTs, Homos, and a prize for Hillarious Clindon.

All people when reaching age 60, go to "A Festive Carousel Celebration" where they are Gassed to music, and their bodies processed to Soylent Pills, and feed to the worlds population as a Vitamin/mineral.

All normal people should be trained in the use of "Barrett 50's".

Rainbow/ Fucking "hero" parade s banned:

A yearly "Normal Heterosexual parade, in every city of the world:

All first motorcycles should be free, and a life time of free fuel.

All people with motorcycles at age 60, get free zimmer frames and are exempt from carousel.

All those like "Cass---", meet Stiglets, and his base ball bat.:nono::nono::nono:

:msn-wink::msn-wink::msn-wink:















You may need to reconsider the hunting period, as it is smack in Winter and most NZ Jews will be offshore at their European holiday houses sunning their arses for a month and banging the nanny or pool boy.

[AllanB]

At their holiday home, and maybe banging the Nanny:

But I doubt the pool boy:




I was trying to be on trend as they say and cater for all genders and sexual preferences. I'm struggling with this modern world that ignores the way genetic bits were designed.

Have you noticed the engineering world still refers to parts as 'male or female' fittings. Just you wait until this is stopped by the tree-huggers.

[Akzle]

- Politicians will be on minimum wage, their families lose all "benefits" - this should incentivise them to make decisions for the benefit of everyone and remove it as a viable career for jew cunts who want to funnel govt monies to their other private interests.

[Akzle]

I was trying to be on trend as they say and cater for all genders and sexual preferences. I'm struggling with this modern world that ignores the way genetic bits were designed.

Have you noticed the engineering world still refers to parts as 'male or female' fittings. Just you wait until this is stopped by the tree-huggers.

ahem. i sexually identify as a helisexual.
http://i0.kym-cdn.com/photos/images/original/001/144/327/9ca.jpg

[crack]

I was trying to be on trend as they say and cater for all genders and sexual preferences. I'm struggling with this modern world that ignores the way genetic bits were designed.

Have you noticed the engineering world still refers to parts as 'male or female' fittings. Just you wait until this is stopped by the tree-huggers.

Male/Female fitting's, am quite partial to female fittings!

Modern engineers have yet to make a Transgender fitting! but they do make Bi;fittings.

Scientific engineers, making Synthetic eggs, still need male jam.

Sth Africa, males get caught by a group of woman, then raped (wanked by women) for their sperm which they sell!

The world is fucked mate, none of us is getting out alive:

The liberal pendulum has swung way out and is not in sight of returning in my life time.

Woman/ She he's/ Gays, rule and are increasing in numbers in the likes of the UN which has been a queer institution for years anyway:

kids borne with lost gender identities, the upcoming career in demand for the future, Psychologists and Shrinks, there is going to be alot of really fucked up people spawning and sharing our air.:crazy::crazy:.

[Swoop]

- “Full licenses” will be of four classes and based on competency:
P – Professional, Taxi Drivers

- Failure to keep left
That class of driver isn't "professional" because of your last line.


Suggest: anyone who is currently, or who has ever previously, spread 1080 poison by air-drop method, be made to eat it to prove it isn't harmful to the environment.

Suggest: Open season on money "lenders" who prey on the less fortunate to get them into greater debt.

Suggest: Complete banning of pokey machines. A plague on society which needds to be removed entirely.

[jasonu]

Obviously, you should vote akzle just because. But I thought i'd get a bit more formal on it. Will update as I think of it.

Transport and Licensing
- All driver licenses are null and void effective immediately. (Everyone must re-sit under new framework)
- Motorcyclists are exempt from all traffic legislation.
- The penalty for most traffic infrigngements will be having the car crushed, regardless of the registered person.
- Driver licensing will be done in two stages, not three :- Learner; Driver
- “Full licenses” will be of four classes and based on competency:
P – Professional, Trained, Truck, Taxi Drivers
A – The best civillian classification
B – Intermediary civillian classification
C – The lowest civillian classification
- Two optional plates available for people who don’t wish to advertise their competency (or lack of):
W – People with a vagina will be eligible for a W(oman) plate
E – People over 60 will be eligible for an E(lederly) plate
Conditions attached to plate classes
A, P – Has free use of the roads, speed limits do not apply.
B – Limited to the current speed limits and single-digit state highways.
C – Limited to the municipal boundaries where they live.
-Every driver must carry their own plates (similar to L plates) and affix them to the vehicle they’re driving.
- If drivers are observed behaving in a manner below their plate, they may be shot.
- Courier drivers must wear a a shock collar. Remote controls available for A and P holders.
- In the first instance: red lights will trigger tyre spikes, anyone who gets spiked will be responsible for all costs involved. Later to be replaced by self-clearing wrecking ball system
- Anyone being the “nose” in nose-to-tail accidents will be crushed.
- Failure to keep left

Medicine, Health &c
- All drugs are legal, effective immediately.
- Synthetic drugs will be assessed and phased out where apropriate.
- The government will farm and refine all medicinal products insofar as possible. AND develop facilities to to synthesise the remainder.
- Anyone may grow their own medicine.
- Everyone incarcerated for drug offences will be eligible to apply to have their case reviewed, with a view to release.
- “Fat” is no longer a medical problem and no help will be available for fatasses.

Miscellany
- jews (having the definition: lawyers, bankers, investment brokers and anyone who profits from usury, debt &c) may be hunted for sport from July through June. Hunting permits available from DOC.

Law and Order
- “Castle law” will be implemented – anyone thieving may be shot by anyone.
- Police will be re-vetted with a view to getting rid of the dickheads.
- Police will be trained to carry and use firearms.


A nigga has begost too much time on his hands. Get a JOB!!!

[jasonu]

The liberal pendulum has swung way out and is not in sight of returning in my life time.

Woman/ She he's/ Gays, rule and are increasing in numbers in the likes of the UN which has been a queer institution for years anyway:



and in your newly (somewhat thanks to MMP) elected parliament too.
http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=11996805

[oldrider]

Behold - a classic KB Phoenix thread rising from the ashes? - :corn:

[Akzle]

(anti-gay ranting):.

yeah.what consenting adults do with their orifices is their own business.
i'll certainly not be encouraging this public gaydom though. but not actively blocking it.

- The overfemisined indoctiniation/schooling system will be getting overhauled to actually educate.

[Akzle]

That class of driver isn't "professional" because of your last line.


you've only recently come off ignore. which gives me the opportunity to respond thusly.

P plates will be issued under the same assessment framework as the rest. Failing to keep left is a C(*ssina) class behaviour, and thus liable to a shooting.


Suggest: anyone who is currently, or who has ever previously, spread 1080 poison by air-drop method, be made to eat it to prove it isn't harmful to the environment.

Suggest: Open season on money "lenders" who prey on the less fortunate to get them into greater debt.

Suggest: Complete banning of pokey machines. A plague on society which needds to be removed entirely.
.
arial 1080 will be stopped immediately. (this is another one of those "politicos funneling public money to private interest" things.
use in bait stations &c will be allowed. suggest: read up on efficacy and persistence

see: "jews"

the monetary system will be phased out. gambling will exist regardless. prohibition of pokie machines will not work. since most return money to the DIA/govt, we'll look at where that "profit" goes. any private ones will probably be shitcanned.

[Oakie]

But wouldnt accept my drivel, I am now Paranoid that they are out to get me!

Wow. Saw your avatar and was a bit taken aback. One of our more interesting members used it a few years back.

[Swoop]

you've only recently come off ignore. which gives me the opportunity to respond thusly.

use in bait stations &c will be allowed.

Glad I've offended you, sweetcakes!

Ground use of cyanide in possum traps to be encouraged. Bounty on ears/tail to be re-instated to encourage hunting based pest control.

Suggest: "speed" camera vans: only permissable in documented multiple crash areas. Not to be operated at the bottom of a hill or at the end of a passing lane.
Suggest: "speed" camera vans. If located at the bottom of a hill then permissable to be set on fire with the operator inside. Entirely permissable to live-feed the burning of the vehicle to the operator's family.

[Grumph]

Bounty on ears/tail to be re-instated to encourage hunting.

I want that to apply to economists too....

[Swoop]

I want that to apply to economists too....

Economists and weather forecasters are the same. If they get anything wrong their excuse is always "we couldn't have predicted that / unforeseen circumstances" etc, etc. Gruntfuck Morgan is a classic example. Soweto necklace the cunts.

[Akzle]

Wow. Saw your avatar and was a bit taken aback. One of our more interesting members used it a few years back.

i think the accounts have been merged

[Akzle]

Glad I've offended you, sweetcakes!
it wasn't offense. it was much, much more dire:
unfunny.



Ground use of cyanide in possum traps to be encouraged. Bounty on ears/tail to be re-instated to encourage hunting based pest control.
yes. also nz to proccess the fure/skins/meat rather than shipping it all to china (who dictate the price/market)


Suggest: "speed" camera vans: only permissable in documented multiple crash areas. Not to be operated at the bottom of a hill or at the end of a passing lane.
Suggest: "speed" camera vans. If located at the bottom of a hill then permissable to be set on fire with the operator inside. Entirely permissable to live-feed the burning of the vehicle to the operator's family.
speed limits not applicable for A, P class operators.

B class only targeted, so they're fair game.

C class aren't allowed out of town. and idgaf if townies exterminate each other.

[Akzle]

I want that to apply to economists too....

see: jews .

[AllanB]

Can you ban mufti cars.

I feel it is most unsporting and quite unfair.

If they have to stoop to such skulduggery to catch you then it's just not cricket.

They should be proud of their position - I say arm them with top end performance cars, wrapped in jet black and wake-the-dead exhaust systems.

[Scuba_Steve]

Maybee I missed it. I didn't see the walling & flooding of Auckland, or has policy changed on that?

[AllanB]

Maybee I missed it. I didn't see the walling & flooding of Auckland, or has policy changed on that?

Nuke it I say. :sunny:

[Akzle]

Can you ban mufti cars.

I feel it is most unsporting and quite unfair.

If they have to stoop to such skulduggery to catch you then it's just not cricket.

They should be proud of their position - I say arm them with top end performance cars, wrapped in jet black and wake-the-dead exhaust systems.

why would you be worried are you B grade or less? or not on a bike?

[Akzle]

Maybee I missed it. I didn't see the walling & flooding of Auckland, or has policy changed on that?

well i figure once actualpeople™ have no cause to go to auckland (like, truck drivers and shit) and shitpeople (aka townies) aren't allowed out, it'll either thrive or die. it's hardly like they can feed themselves.

concrete is expensive and not very environmentally friendly.

if natural selection doesn't sort it out we'll look at H-bombing it.

[mashman]

Obviously, you should vote akzle just because. But I thought i'd get a bit more formal on it. Will update as I think of it.

Transport and Licensing WTF have they done to you son? All I was expecting to see is:
- bwaaaaaaaa ha ha ha ha ha ha ha ha ha haaaaaaa@licensing.

Medicine, Health &c Seriously... the government to interfere with supply chains that already exist?
- The government will farm and refine all medicinal products insofar as possible. AND develop facilities to to synthesise the remainder.

Law and Order What happened to do no harm?



I haz confoozed... and yes, I used the text colour for a purpose as we seem to have slid from the twighlight zone into a dark enough zone to warrant said colour. WTF have they done to you Ax? What? Why? :crybaby:

[Akzle]

I haz confoozed... and yes, I used the text colour for a purpose as we seem to have slid from the twighlight zone into a dark enough zone to warrant said colour. WTF have they done to you Ax? What? Why? :crybaby:

i've gone political <_<

and i've always been up for killing niggers who thief shit.

this is how I (capital i) see "society" transitioning from the dysfunctional shit it is now, to sunshine and lolipops and unicorns.

once everyone is forced to notbeadickau, then that becomes the norm, then the brainwaves will change frequency and the species can ascend before i have to destroy the planet again.

-edit- and also yes, to the drugs thing, because it's not like growing opium or dak is particularly hard, and why should international americapharmajews dictate the price of medicine?

[mashman]

i've gone political <_<

and i've always been up for killing niggers who thief shit.

this is how I (capital i) see "society" transitioning from the dysfunctional shit it is now, to sunshine and lolipops and unicorns.

once everyone is forced to notbeadickau, then that becomes the norm, then the brainwaves will change frequency and the species can ascend before i have to destroy the planet again.

-edit- and also yes, to the drugs thing, because it's not like growing opium or dak is particularly hard, and why should international americapharmajews dictate the price of medicine?

Aha. I know ya not linkin' the light fingered brigade, not many do... but force? They'll be "forced", all by their lonesome, to no longer be a dickhead soon enough as production is either stopped or supply chains collapse to a point where few are making any money. No need for anything new for all these new rules and regulations.

Regarding edit... I mean the supply chains that already exist i.e. the black market. No official organisation should have any input into that imho. Apply a little science and let them who are currently growing various planties get all stuck in with a product that's home grown and therefore known to have not been tampered with because someone reackons a THC level is too high or sommink. Government indeed. I never picked you as a knuckledragger :bleh:

[Akzle]

Aha. I know ya not linkin' the light fingered brigade, not many do... but force? They'll be "forced", all by their lonesome, to no longer be a dickhead soon enough as production is either stopped or supply chains collapse to a point where few are making any money. No need for anything new for all these new rules and regulations.

Regarding edit... I mean the supply chains that already exist i.e. the black market. No official organisation should have any input into that imho. Apply a little science and let them who are currently growing various planties get all stuck in with a product that's home grown and therefore known to have not been tampered with because someone reackons a THC level is too high or sommink. Government indeed. I never picked you as a knuckledragger :bleh:

statistics show that criminals commit a lot less crime after being shot.

yeah well it's a profitable enterprise innit. so my govt might as well get a slice of the pie.
and the gangs aren't exactly supplying hospital grade shit (or quantities) now eh.
and being de-illegaled, they can continue to supply as they do.

[crack]

w. Saw your avatar and was a bit taken aback. One of our more interesting members used it a few years back.[/QUOTE]

You mean while I have been incarcerated, (I didnt kill them honestly) :laugh:and undergone years of rectal prodding in the showers, someone stole my AVATAR!:2guns:

I did see a brief mention of The Jewish Culture on here.

I do not subscribe to anti semanticism, anti-semitic Ideology.

My reasoning is that I have studied history, & Jewish History, and their is no doubt they are our creators, (whoever you wish to call him) chosen people.

The Jewish people make up Under 1% of the worlds population, yet their contributions to Human Kind is HUGE.

A dear and now passed on, friend and colleague, "Steve" AKA JAWS, as a young Pilot officer saw service in the last months of world war two, he was detailed to fly politicians and those accused of war crimes, he and his mates went to the camps of extermination and visited to look at the accused of these horrendous crimes, he said they looked just like you and me, He could not figure out what had gone on in their head.

When they saw the "Bitch of Bergen-Belsen" we wanted to see how ugly this bitch "Irma Grese" was and we took bets as to who amongst us would do her if able! (young guys in their late teens/early 20's).

When they were taken to see her, she was used to having visits from such as Jaws and his mates, out of human interest, she did not like it, she apparently screamed, and nutted off that the polish guard entered her cell, punched her, threw her to the ground, then kicked her with his hobbed boats in the ribs so hard they heard the crack:

He/ dear old Steve, said he still dreamt of this ugly cow and her pure hatred, it shocked and scared him and his mates, (no one did her:laugh:)

They went along to watch her Hang instead.

Have a read if you wish, I leave it to you to form your own opinion.

y Luana Goriss
Updated July 03, 2017
Considering that the Jewish people constitute a mere one-half of one percent of the world's population, Jewish contributions to religion, science, literature, music, medicine, finance, philosophy, entertainment etc., is staggering.

In the field of medicine alone, Jewish contributions are staggering and continue to be so. It was a Jew who created the first polio vaccine, who discovered insulin, who discovered that aspirin dealt with pain, who discovered chloral hydrate for convulsions, who discovered streptomycin, who discovered the origin and spread of infectious diseases, who invented the test for diagnosis of syphilis, who identified the first cancer virus, who discovered the cure for pellagra and added to the knowledge about yellow fever, typhoid, typhus, measles, diphtheria and influenza.

Today, Israel, a nation only sixty years old, has emerged at the forefront of stem-cell research, which will, in the near future, give humanity unprecedented medical treatment for degenerative diseases.

There is a passage in the Talmud that says: “We find in the case of Cain, who killed his brother, that it is written: The bloods of thy brother cry unto me: not the blood of thy brother, but the bloods of thy brother is said, that is, his blood and the blood of his potential descendants.” (Sanhedrin 37a, 37-38.)

Over the past 2,000 years in particular, millions of Jews have been killed in Inquisitions, Pogroms, and more recently, the horror of the Holocaust. One wonders how much more humanity could have gained from the descendants of those murdered and their potential contributions to mankind.

Below is a short list of some of the most important contributions Jewish individuals have made to society.

Jewish Contributions to Society
Albert Einstein Physicist
Jonas Salk Created first Polio Vaccine.
Albert Sabin Developed the oral vaccine for Polio.
Galileo Discovered the speed of light
Selman Waksman Discovered Streptomycin. Coined the word 'antibiotic'.
Gabriel Lipmann Discovered color photography.
Baruch Blumberg Discovered origin and spread of infectious diseases.
G. Edelman Discovered chemical structure of antibodies.
Briton Epstein Identified first cancer virus.
Maria Meyer Structure of atomic nuclei.
Julius Mayer Discovered law of thermodynamics.
Sigmund Freud Father of Psychotherapy.
Christopher Columbus (Marano) Discovered the Americas.
Benjamin Disraeli Prime Minister of Great Britain 1804-1881
Isaac Singer Invented the sewing machine.
Levi Strauss Largest manufacturer of Denim Jeans.
Joseph Pulitzer Established 'Pulitzer Prize' for achievements in journalism, literature, music & art.

And the remnant of Jacob shall be in the midst of many peoples, as dew from the Lord, as showers upon the grass..." MICAH 5:6*

JEWISH NOBEL PRIZE WINNERS
CHEMISTRY
ECONOMICS
LITERATURE
MEDICINE
PEACE
PHYSICS
JEWS IN ANTHROPOLOGY
JEWS IN BIOMEDICAL SCIENCE
JEWS IN CHEMISTRY
JEWS IN CHESS
JEWS IN COMPUTER & INFORMATION SCIENCE
JEWS IN ECONOMICS
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REFLECTIONS ON JUDAISM AND THE JEWS
THE WHAT, WHY, & WHO OF THIS WEBSITE

The purpose of this website is to provide an online resource that accurately describes the Jewish contribution to the cultural, scientific, and technological evolution of civilization. Although there are scores of websites currently on the Internet that purport to characterize the Jews and their impact on the world, nearly all of them are sponsored by groups whose ultimate objectives vis-à-vis the Jews range from defamation to outright elimination. Many of the classic works of the anti-Semitic canon, once confined to the fever swamps, have become widely available via these websites, a few of which actually display legal disclaimers concerning their potential for incitement to "unlawful or criminal acts." (The composer Arnold Schoenberg once asked in this connection: "What is anti-Semitism to lead to if not acts of violence? Is it so difficult to imagine that?")

JINFO.ORG has no outside organizational affiliation or sponsorship. The website is an evolving project with new sections being added periodically. Statistical metrics are extensively employed because they are the most efficient technique for objectively summarizing and conveying an overall view of the large quantities of data involved.

Concerning Jewish identity, the vast majority (over 90%) of the individuals listed here as being Jewish are such by virtue of having had two Jewish parents. Also included, however, are individuals with one Jewish parent, as well as a number of Jews-by-choice, with the listings of individuals in the latter two categories qualified as such. In adopting this criterion for inclusion, we have followed the practice employed by the Jewish encyclopedias for more than a century.

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* The passage numbered Micah 5:6 in Jewish Bibles is numbered 5:7 in Christian Bibles.
JEWS IN THE MEDICAL & LIFE SCIENCES
JINFO.ORG
Prior to presenting his appeal to Oliver Cromwell for the readmission of the Jews, who had been expelled from England in 1290, Manasseh ben Israel wrote in The Hope of Israel 1: "Hence it may be seen that God hath not left us; for if one persecutes us, another receives us civilly and courteously; and if this prince treats us ill, another treats us well; if one banisheth us out of his country, another invites us with a thousand privileges ... and do we not see that those Republiques do flourish and much increase in trade who admit the Israelites?" But it was not for their economic prowess alone that the Jews were valued, it was for a whole host of skills, not the least of which was their expertise in the medical arts.

Winston Churchill, writing of the expulsion referred to above, states: "The Jews, held up to universal hatred, were pillaged, maltreated, and finally expelled from the realm. Exception was made for certain physicians without whose skill persons of consequence might have lacked due attention."2 Indeed, more often than not, the chief court physicians of the rulers of Europe were Jews or crypto-Jews. To cite but a few examples, Frederick III of the Holy Roman Empire, Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, Elizabeth I of England, Louis XIV of France, Catherine de Medici, and Catherine the Great of Russia all at one time or another employed Jewish personal physicians.3 Nor was it only the secular rulers of Christendom that depended on Jewish medical skills. As the Spanish philosopher and theologian Ramon Lull (Raymond Lully) complained in the thirteenth century: "Jews are universally entrusted by the great with the care of their health. Nor is the Church free from this abomination, for nearly every monastery has its Jewish physician."4 Among the many Popes who maintained Jewish personal physicians were Martin IV, Nicholas IV, Boniface VIII, Alexander VI, Julius II, Leo X, Clement VII, Paul III, Gregory XV, Urban VIII, and Innocent X.5

Much the same situation prevailed in Dar al-Islam, where, e.g., Maimonides served as court physician to Saladin the Great's Vizier Al-Fadhil and later to Saladin's son and successor. Jews also figured prominently as translators and transmitters to the Moslem world of the medical scholarship of the ancient Greeks, and would later play a similar role in transmitting to Europe the scholarship of Moslem physicians such as Avicenna. In the late Middle Ages, the Jews, numbering only about 1% of Europe's population, constituted roughly half of its physicians.6 During the last of the great European Jewish expulsions in the 1930s, the medical centers of Vienna and Berlin lost nearly half of their physicians and the majority of their medical school faculties.7 Many fled to America, helping to fuel its meteoric rise to preeminence in biomedical research; Jews have accounted for some 40% of US Nobel Prizes in medicine and constitute over one-third of the combined membership of the life sciences divisions of the US National Academy of Sciences and its affiliated Institute of Medicine.

The following links contain lists of prominent Jewish scientists and recipients of major international awards in the biomedical field. The last link below contains an analysis showing that of all the lives saved by all the scientific and medical advances in human history, more than three-fourths of those lives were saved by advances for which Jews constituted fifty percent or more of the principal developers.
Jewish Biomedical & Life Scientists
Jewish Recipients of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (27% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the Lasker Award in Basic Medical Research (32% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the Gairdner Foundation Awards (26% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the Wolf Prize in Medicine (41% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize (43% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the GM Cancer Research Foundation Sloan Prize (38% of recipients)
Jews Among the Creators of History's Greatest Lifesaving Medical & Scientific Advances (estimated 2.8 billion lives saved)
Some of the more notable Jewish contributions to the medical and biological sciences in the modern era are listed below. (The names of non-Jewish scientists mentioned in the accompanying discussion have been denoted with the superscript "+" in order to avoid confusion.)

The invention of local anesthesia by Carl Koller and the discovery of Novocaine by Alfred Einhorn.
The discovery that pancreatic dysfunction is the cause of diabetes by Oskar Minkowski (together with Joseph von Mering+) and the subsequent discovery that this dysfunction involves a deficiency in the hormonal secretions of the islets of Langerhans by Moses Barron. The work of the Canadian team that isolated insulin (Banting+, Best+, Collip+, and Macleod+) was based on these two prior discoveries.
The discovery of the ABO and other human blood groups and of the Rh factor by Karl Landsteiner. (The M, N, and P blood groups were co-discovered with Philip Levine and the Rh factor was co-discovered with Alexander Wiener). Landsteiner received the 1930 Nobel Prize for this work, which made safe blood transfusions possible for the first time. Landsteiner is also considered to be one of the giants of immunology, having made major contributions to the understanding of the chemical basis of antigen-antibody Jews, by Bernt Engelmann (Bantam, New York, 1984, pp. 59-60).
8. Billy Woodward et al., Scientists Greater than Einstein: The Biggest Lifesavers of the Twentieth Century (Linden, Chicago, 2009, pp. 315, 321).
9. Heynick, Jews and Medicine: An Epic Saga, p.461.
10. See http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1119266.
11. See profile of Michael S. Levine by Karen Hopkin in The Scientist (Vol. 21, No. 3, 2007, p. 58).
12. Endless Forms Most Beautiful: The New Science of Evo Devo, by Sean Carroll (W.W. Norton, New York, 2005, p. 9).
13. See Discovering the RNA Double Helix and Hybridization, by Alexander Varshavsky in Cell (Vol. 127, 29 December 2006, pp. 1295-1297).
14. The image reconstruction algorithm employed in all tomographic imaging is based on the Radon transform, which was invented by the Austrian mathematician Johann Radon+ in 1917. In his paper, Radon+ states that his result is based on the prior work of Hermann Minkowski and Paul Funk. Minkowski was the younger brother of the above-mentioned physiologist Oskar Minkowski. Paul Funk was a Czech-Jewish mathematician who survived internment in the Nazi concentration camp at Terezín (Theresienstadt). Gábor Frank obtained the first patents for x-ray tomographic scanning (1938 patents in both Hungary and Germany). Unlike Funk, he did not return from the camps. See Made in Hungary, by Andrew Simon (Simon Publications, Safety Harbor, FL, 1999, p. 266).
A Brief History
On June 19, 1269, the King of France, Louis IX, ordered that any Jew found in any public place not wearing the obligatory yellow badge would be fined 10 livres of silver. (Note: The livre was the monetary unit in France before 1795 when they came up with the franc. The word stems from the Latin word for “pound” and the original livre in 781 CE was 1 pound of silver.) People of Jewish faith or lineage have suffered discrimination and worse for many centuries. Meanwhile, many Jewish scientists, composers, educators, and artists of all types among others have enriched mankind. For example, 3 of the 7 justices on the US Supreme Court are Jewish. (Some of the inventions of Jews; safety razor, printed circuit board, cell phone, transistor, computer mouse, defibrillator, Esperanto, video tape, the Corvette, and the cotton swab.) Here we list 10 of the greatest contributions of people of Jewish background to the United States and the World. Who else would you include? (Note: The arbitrary order listed does not denote relative value of the contribution.)

Digging Deeper
10. Julius Fromm, Latex Condom.


With the loosening of sexual inhibitions after the prudish Victorian age, people obviously needed protection against unwanted pregnancy and disease. Condoms then were made of natural “skin” substances (animal intestines) and of rubber. The rubber condoms were made by wrapping layers of rubber around a mold and then cooking it. Fromm invented a way to make the latex liquid and manufacture the condoms by dipping a mold into the liquid. His invention was made in 1916, and the thinner, cheaper condom was a big success throughout Europe. He also invented the condom vending machine in 1928, leading to the gas station bathroom graffiti, “Don’t buy this gum, it tastes like rubber!”

9. Ruth Handler, Barbie Doll.


Ranking close to the Teddy Bear in the hearts of American children, Barbie has kept girls company since 1959. Handler and her husband were co-founders of Mattel (with Harold Matson) and were manufacturing plastic items such as picture frames when Ruth got the inspiration for Barbie from their daughter, Barbara. The invention of Barbie has made millions of little girls happy and millions of parents wondering where their money went when Barbie “needed” all those accessories.

8. Morris Michtom, Teddy Bear.


Taking inspiration from a cartoon of President Teddy Roosevelt showing a little bear mercy while hunting, Morris and his wife Rose created the Teddy Bear and turned it into an American icon. Cracked fact: Their daughter appeared in 40+ episodes of the television show, Get Smart as a background character.

7. Benjamin Disraeli, British Statesman.


Although born a Sephardic Jew, Disraeli’s father had his family switch to Anglican when Ben was 12, obviously to blend in to British society. (Anglican is the state religion of the United Kingdom.) Disraeli went on to a distinguished career in British politics, serving as Prime Minister and as Chancellor of the Exchequer, as well as a Conservative member of Parliament.

6. Laszlo Biro, Ball Point Pen.


Just think, before 1944 when this Hungarian Jew invented the ball point pen, there were no copy machines and the use of carbon paper to make handwritten copies must have been horrendous with a fountain pen. Smudge free writing and many times less likely to cause a laundry disaster than a fountain pen. Thanks Laszlo!

5. Claude Levi-Strauss, Anthropology.


No he did not invent blue jeans (probably wishes he did!). Claude is called the Father of Modern Anthropology for his work concerning structuralism and structural anthropology. He also studied mythology and applied his structuralist approach to that field. President of France (at the time) Nicolas Sarkozy called him “The greatest ethnologist of our time.” upon his death at age 100 in 2009. Born in Belgium, Levi-Strauss spent most of his life in France.

4. J. Robert Oppenheimer and Edward Teller, Nuclear Physics.


Whether you think nuclear weapons are a good thing or not, Oppenheimer is considered the Father of the Atomic Bomb and Teller is considered the Father of the Hydrogen Bomb. Both were born into Jewish families and both worked in the United States, although Teller was born in Hungary. The fact that these scientists enabled the US to be the first to get nuclear weapons may well have prevented a catastrophe for the Western world had the Soviets or Chinese gotten such weapons first.

3. Sanford “Sandy” Koufax, Baseball.


Born Sanford Braun, Koufax played only 11 years of big league baseball, but what spectacular years they were. He pitched 4 no hitters, struck out 2396 batters and had a career ERA of 2.76. Along with Nolan Ryan, Koufax is one of only two pitchers in the Hall of Fame that struck out more batters than innings they pitched. Amazing fact: In Koufax’s last year (1966) he was 27-9 with a 1.73 ERA! His salary for that fantastic season; a career high $125,000. Koufax famously refused to pitch a World Series game on Yom Kippur, a Jewish holy day.

2. Sigmund Schlomo Freud, Psychoanalysis.


This Austrian Jew is the Father of Psychoanalysis and as such greatly influenced those psychiatrists that came after him. His research and thinking is some of the most influential and insightful delving into the human mind of all time. Cracked fact: Freud thought that the fear of castration among males is provoked by uncircumcised boys seeing boys that are circumcised and as such this constitutes the root of anti-Semitism. Additionally, Freud thought that belief in God is an “illusion” and basically exists to calm man’s fear of “nature” and death.

1. Albert Einstein, Science.


Among other things, Einstein is most famous for his Special and General Theories of Relativity, and for his equation, E= MC2². Often referred to as the smartest man in history, Einstein was in the United States when Hitler and the Nazis took power in Germany where Einstein had been working as a professor in Berlin. Einstein chose to stay in the US as he rightly figured going back to Germany was suicidal. Fun facts: No one knows what Einstein’s last words were because he spoke them in German and no German speaking person was present. Recently discovered correspondence indicates that Einstein was probably an atheist, although he never said so publicly.

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What the Jewish people have done militarily for their tiny nation, has the respect of their allies , and their enemies alike.

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The development of the sodium citrate blood storage technique by Richard Lewisohn. Prior to Lewisohn's work in 1913, blood could not be stored and had to be transfused directly between donor and recipient. The use of sodium citrate as an anticoagulant, together with the use of refrigeration (introduced by Richard Weil), permitted creation of the first blood banks. Lewisohn and Karl Landsteiner (see above) are considered to be the two researchers most responsible for the invention of modern blood transfusion, which is estimated to have saved in excess of one billion lives since the 1950s alone, making it the single greatest lifesaving medical advance in history.8
The introduction of the side-chain theory of antibody formation by Paul Ehrlich, which has evolved into clonal selection theory, the central paradigm of modern immunology. Ehrlich shared the 1908 Nobel Prize with Élie Metchnikoff* for their independent contributions to immunology. Ehrlich is also considered to be the founder of modern chemotherapeutic medicine. His development of Salvarsan (1909) and Neosalvarsan (1911) constituted the first effective treatment for syphilis and, in the words of Sir Alexander Fleming+, "the beginning - and a magnificent beginning - of bacterial chemotherapy." 9
The isolation and development of penicillin by Sir Ernst Chain. Chain shared the 1945 Nobel Prize for this work with Sir Alexander Fleming+ and Sir Howard Florey+. It was Chain who recognized the potential of Fleming's+ nearly forgotten discovery of the antibacterial properties of Penicillium molds (one of many agents then known to have such properties). Chain, a biochemist, was able to isolate the active antibacterial substance, viz., penicillin, and to work out its molecular structure (later confirmed in the Nobel-Prize-winning x-ray diffraction work of Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin+). Using samples that Chain produced, Chain and Florey+ demonstrated penicillin's stability, nontoxicity, and effectiveness against staphylococcal, streptococcal, and clostridial infections in laboratory animals and humans.
The development of streptomycin by Selman Waksman and Albert Schatz. Waksman received the 1952 Nobel Prize for this work, which created the first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis, for which (in combination with other drugs) it remains a therapeutic mainstay.
The development of isoniazid by Herbert Fox and Harry Yale. Although isoniazid, the leading drug used in the treatment of tuberculosis since the mid-1950s, was first synthesized in 1912 by Josef Mally+ and Hans Leopold Meyer (who later died in the Nazi concentration camp at Terezín), its anti-tubercular properties were not discovered until the early 1950s, when it was independently re-synthesized and clinically explored by three separate groups. These were headed, respectively, by Fox at Hoffmann-La Roche, Yale at Squibb, and Gerhard Domagk+ at Bayer. Isoniazid, used early on in combination with streptomycin and a third drug, para-amino salicylic acid (PAS), and more recently in combination with other drugs, has saved over a hundred million lives since the 1950s. (PAS was developed by Jörgen Lehmann+ in Denmark, based on studies carried out by Frederick Bernheim in the US. In these studies, Bernheim established the metabolic role of salicylic acid in the tubercle bacillus. PAS is basically designed to interfere with these salicylate-dependant metabolic processes, ultimately impairing or killing the bacillus.) In a related, but separate development, iproniazid, an isoniazid derivative first synthesized by Fox in 1951 as a potential anti-tubercular agent, was found to have powerful anti-depressant effects. It subsequently became the basis for the MAOIs (mono-amine oxidase inhibitors) that revolutionized the treatment of clinical depression in the post-war period.
The isolation of cortisone by Tadeus Reichstein. Reichstein shared the 1950 Nobel Prize with Edward Kendall+ and Philip Hench+. Reichstein and Kendall+ were recognized for having independently isolated and characterized the hormones of the adrenal cortex, the most important of which was cortisone.
The chemical synthesis of cortisone by Lewis Sarett*, Max Tishler, and Carl Djerassi. Sarett, working under Tishler at Merck, achieved the first chemical synthesis of the compound. With subsequent improvements by Tishler, Sarett's synthesis made cortisone a commercially available drug for the first time. Further advances achieved independently by Djerassi and by Percy Julian+ made economically viable, large-scale production possible. Sarett, Tishler, and Djerassi were all awarded US National Medals of Science (in 1975, 1987, and 1973, respectively).
The development of aspirin by Arthur Eichengrun and Felix Hoffmann+. Aspirin is an artificially modified form of salicylic acid, a naturally occurring substance that can be obtained from the bark of willow trees, whose analgesic properties have been known since antiquity. Salicylic acid is, however, very poorly tolerated by the digestive system, which greatly limits its medicinal value. Early attempts to reduce its toxicity through acetylation failed to yield acetylsalicylic acid of sufficient purity to be medicinally useful. The first successful synthesis of pure acetylsalicylic acid was achieved in 1897 by Felix Hoffmann+, working at F. Bayer & Co. in Germany. Recently developed evidence indicates, however, that credit for this development should have gone equally, or even predominantly, to Hoffmann's+ Jewish supervisor, Arthur Eichengrun.10
The discovery of prostaglandins by M. W. Goldblatt. (Also discovered independently by Ulf von Euler+.) Sir John Vane* was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1982 for demonstrating that the anti-inflammatory and analgesic action of aspirin-like drugs was via their inhibition of prostaglandin production. Vane also discovered the vasodilator prostacyclin, which led directly to the development of the ACE inhibitors that are widely used in the treatment of hypertension, heart failure, and other vascular diseases. The development of the COX-2 selective inhibitors (such as the "super-aspirin" Celebrex, widely used by severe arthritis sufferers) was largely the work of Philip Needleman.
The discovery of neurotransmitters by Otto Loewi. Loewi shared the 1936 Nobel Prize with Sir Henry Dale+ for their independent work on acetylcholine. Sir Bernard Katz and Julius Axelrod shared the 1970 Nobel Prize with Ulf von Euler+ for advanced work on neurotransmitters. Their work led directly to the development of the class of anti-depressants that includes Prozac, Zoloft, and Paxil. Axelrod, together with Bernard Brodie, Leon Greenberg, and David Lester, was largely responsible for the development of the pain reliever acetaminophen (Tylenol).
The discovery of endorphins and enkephalins by Solomon Snyder and Hans Kosterlitz, respectively. The discovery by Snyder of the opioid receptors in the mammalian nervous system led to the further discovery of endorphins and enkephalins, endogenous opioids that help to control mood and pain. The opioid receptors play a large role in the action of pain killers such as morphine. This new understanding of opioid action has in turn led to the development of synthetic pain killing substitutes with diminished potential for addiction. Snyder and Kosterlitz shared the 1978 Lasker Award in Basic Medical Research for this work.
The discovery and characterization of growth factors by Rita Levi-Montalcini, Viktor Hamburger, and Stanley H. Cohen. Levi-Montalcini and Cohen shared the 1986 Nobel Prize for their identification and isolation of the nerve and epidermal growth factors, respectively. Growth factors (others of which were subsequently discovered) are protein molecular "signals" emitted by cells to control growth and differentiation in neighboring cells. Cohen also elucidated the biochemical pathways through which growth factors act after binding to receptors on the outer membranes of target cells. Growth factors play a large role in embryonic development and are thought to have potential medical application in nerve regeneration, accelerated wound healing, and in the understanding and control of tumor cell proliferation. The "blockbuster" drug Herceptin for treating breast and other cancers is based, in part, on Cohen's epidermal growth factor research.
The development of Warfarin (Coumadin) anticoagulant therapy by Shepard Shapiro. Warfarin is the most commonly used anticoagulant for the prevention of heart attacks and strokes. It is also one of the most widely prescribed medications in the world. It was discovered in 1946 by Karl Paul Link+, who developed it as a rat poison. Its identification and development for use in human anticoagulant therapy resulted from the work of Shapiro in the early 1950s. Previously, in the early 1940s, Shapiro had pioneered the clinical use of the anti-clotting agent methylene dicoumarin (dicoumarol), which was also discovered by Link+.
The development of oral contraceptives by Gregory Pincus, Carl Djerassi, and Frank Colton.
The development of the Salk and Sabin polio vaccines by Jonas Salk and Albert Sabin, respectively. The resulting worldwide near-eradication of polio is estimated to be preventing over one-half million new cases of lifelong paralysis each year. The discovery that the causative agent in polio was, in fact, a virus was made in 1908 by Karl Landsteiner and Erwin Popper.
The development of the hepatitis-B vaccine by Baruch Blumberg and Irving Millman. Blumberg received the 1976 Nobel Prize, in part for this work, which has saved an estimated six-to-seven million lives.
The co-discovery of interferon by Alick Isaacs (in collaboration with Jean Lindenmann+). The large-scale production of recombinant interferon for medical use (a market currently in excess of $15 billion annually) is based largely on the work of Charles Weissmann and Sidney Pestka. Pestka received the US National Medal of Technology in 2001. Interferons are widely used in the treatment of multiple sclerosis, leukemias and lymphomas, melanomas, and hepatitis B and C.
The co-invention of monoclonal antibodies by César Milstein. Milstein shared the 1984 Nobel Prize with Georges Köhler+ for this work. Four of the top ten "blockbuster" anti-cancer drugs, including the top three, are now based on monoclonal antibody technology. The development of all four drugs was based on the application of this research to other research conducted by Jewish scientists. Specifically, Rituxan is based on the non-Hodgkin's lymphoma research of Ronald Levy; Avastin is based on the angiogenesis research pioneered by Judah Folkman; Herceptin is based on the the epidermal growth factor research of Stanley H. Cohen and the HER-2/neu protein research of Robert Weinberg, Jeffrey Drebin, and Mark Greene; and Erbitux is based on research by Michael Sela and John Mendelsohn. The combined annual sales of these four drugs are in excess of $20 billion. (Of the remaining six "small molecule" drugs among the top ten blockbuster anti-cancer agents, at least two are based on the research of Jewish scientists. Specifically, Velcade is based on work by Julian Adams, Avram Hershko, Alexander Varshavsky, Aaron Ciechanover, and Irwin Rose; and Gleevec is based, in part, on the research of Brian Druker.)
The invention of cancer chemotherapy by Louis Goodman, Alfred Gilman, and Sidney Farber. In the early 1940s, Goodman and Gilman discovered the effectiveness of mechlorethamine ("nitrogen mustard") in the treatment of lymphatic malignancies. In the late 1940s, Farber produced the first chemically induced remissions from leukemia using the folic acid inhibitors aminopterin and methotrexate. Eventually mechlorethamine and methotrexate, used in combination with other anti-cancer agents (mechlorethamine is the "M" in MOPP) and radiation, would lead to cures for many previously fatal lymphomas and leukemias, respectively.
The co-development of 6-MP (6-mercaptopurine) by Gertrude Elion, which used in combination with methotrexate and other drugs, has led to cures for most forms of childhood leukemia. Elion was also the co-developer of azathioprine (Imuran), the immunosuppressant that made organ transplants possible between individuals other than identical twins, and of acyclovir (Zovirax) for the treatment of herpes viral infections. Elion and George Hitchings+ received the 1988 Nobel Prize for their joint work.
The discovery and development of cisplatin by Barnett Rosenberg, which has led to a complete reversal in the prognosis for testicular cancer, a malignancy that had almost always been fatal and is now roughly 90% curable. The chemotherapeutic protocols for the use of cisplatin in the treatment and cure of testicular cancer were developed by Lawrence Einhorn (who supervised the successful treatment of Tour de France champion Lance Armstrong+).
The revolutionizing of radiation oncology by Henry Kaplan. Kaplan, the long-time head of radiology at Stanford Medical School, introduced the use of megavolt x-ray therapy in the 1950s, using linear accelerators (LINACs) to generate the required high-energy radiation. The medical LINAC is now the primary tool used in radiation oncology worldwide. Since the 1950s, an estimated forty million cancer patients have received such radiation treatments. (Currently about half of all cancer patients receive radiotherapy, primarily from LINAC-generated x-rays.) Even more significantly, Kaplan and his associates demonstrated that radiotherapy could be employed as a curative, rather than a merely palliative, cancer treatment. By the late 1970s, using radiotherapy protocols largely developed by Kaplan and his group, cure rates of 70%-80% were being achieved in patients with early-stage Hodgkin's lymphoma, which had previously been a uniformly fatal disease. Kaplan and Saul Rosenberg were the first to apply chemotherapy as an adjunct to radiation therapy in Hodgkin's disease, their regimens achieving initial cure rates in the late 1970s of 30%-40% in late-stage Hodgkin's disease. (With subsequent dramatic improvements in chemotherapy, the primary and secondary roles of radiation and chemotherapy have been reversed; cure rates are now 98% in early-stage Hodgkin's disease and 85% in advanced disease.) Kaplan and his associates were also responsible for the clinical trial studies that established the utility of the histopathologic classification scheme for non-Hodgkin's lymphomas proposed by Henry Rappaport in 1956. Although not widely accepted at the time, the Rappaport classification (with subsequent modifications) has become the most widely used in the staging and treatment of non-Hodgkin's lymphomas. For his pioneering work in radiation oncology, Kaplan became in 1969 the only biomedical scientist to be awarded the prestigious Atoms for Peace Award.
The co-discovery of oncogenes by Harold Varmus and the elucidation of their role in human cancer by Robert Weinberg, Michael Wigler, Bert Vogelstein, Arnold Levine, and others. Varmus shared the 1989 Nobel Prize with Michael Bishop+ for this work.
The discovery of retroviruses and their associated reverse transcriptase enzyme by David Baltimore and Howard Temin. Baltimore and Temin shared the 1975 Nobel Prize for their independent discovery of these viruses, which are implicated in AIDS and in some cancers, and whose existence disproved the "central dogma" of molecular biology.
The development of AZT, protease inhibitors, and other drugs used in the treatment of AIDS by Jerome Horwitz, Samuel Broder, and Irving Sigal. AZT (Retrovir), which was originally synthesized by Horwitz for use as an anti-cancer agent, proved to be the first of the reverse transcriptase inhibitors found effective against HIV. Its identification as such in clinical trials was largely the result of efforts led by Broder, who also co-developed two other reverse transcriptase inhibitors (ddl and ddC). Sigal, who was senior director of molecular biology at Merck prior to his death in the 1988 bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland, was the first to demonstrate the effectiveness of protease inhibitors against HIV. Used in combination, the various reverse transcriptase and protease inhibitors have dramatically improved the outlook for AIDS patients.
The elucidation of the biochemistry of cellular metabolism by Otto Warburg*, Otto Meyerhof, Gustav Embden, Jacob Parnas, Sir Hans Krebs, Fritz Lipmann, Herman Kalckar, Carl Neuberg, Gerty Cori, Konrad Bloch, and others. This includes much of the basic work on glycolysis (Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway), the urea and citric acid cycles (Krebs cycles), the pentose phosphate pathway, and oxidative phosphorylation and the role of ATP, as well as significant contributions to the characterization of glycogen and fatty acid metabolism. Warburg, Meyerhof, Krebs, Lipmann, Cori, and Bloch all received Nobel Prizes.
The invention of radioisotopic tracer techniques by George de Hevesy, Friedrich Paneth, Rudolf Schoenheimer, David Rittenberg, Martin Kamen, William Hassid, and Samuel Ruben. Hevesy and Paneth introduced the general technique, for which Hevesy won the 1943 Nobel Prize in chemistry; Kamen and Ruben discovered the long-lived carbon-14 radioisotope, which has had widespread application in biology (and is also the basis of radiocarbon dating). Melvin Calvin employed carbon-14 to elucidate the so-called dark reactions of photosynthesis, for which he was awarded the 1961 Nobel Prize in chemistry. (Others who made major contributions to the understanding of photosynthesis include the physicist George Feher and the Nobel laureates James Franck, Richard Willstätter, and Otto Warburg*.)
The invention of radioimmunoassay by Rosalyn Yalow and Solomon Berson, which has revolutionized clinical and research practice in such fields as endocrinology and blood banking. The technique, which can be made exquisitely sensitive to trace amounts (nano- and pico-molar concentrations) of specific blood substances, is employed in measuring the levels of most hormones, screening donated blood for hepatitis-B virus, and in allergy and drug level testing. Yalow received the Nobel Prize in 1977 for this work. (Berson died in 1972.)
The determination of key components of the experimental basis for the double helix model of DNA by Phoebus Levene, Erwin Chargaff, and Rosalind Franklin. In 1929, Levene discovered that DNA contains a sugar called deoxyribose and that it consists of a chain of what he termed "nucleotides," units composed of the deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate group, and one of four purine or pyrimidine bases. (The purine and pyrimidine molecular base constituents of DNA were discovered by the German biochemist Albrecht Kossel+.) Levene incorrectly concluded that all four bases were present in equal proportions. Chargaff, however, showed that the four bases were, in fact, present in specific pairwise ratios ([adenine]=[thymine] =/= [guanine]=[cytosine]), implying both structural base pairing and base coding of the genetic information. Finally, Rosalind Franklin's x-ray crystallographic studies of DNA provided the clear evidence for a double helical structure. The theoretical model of Watson+ and Crick+ was largely based on the experimental data provided by the aforementioned chemical and structural analyses.
The breaking of the genetic code by Marshall Nirenberg. Nirenberg and Har Gobind Khorana+ shared the 1968 Nobel Prize for their independent determinations of the code.
The co-discovery of the basic mechanisms of gene regulation by François Jacob, Walter Gilbert, Mark Ptashne, Andrew Fire, Gary Ruvkun, Howard Cedar, Aharon Razin, Michael Grunstein, and Michael Levine. Jacob shared the 1965 Nobel Prize with Jacques Monod+ for their joint work on the development of the operon-repressor model of gene regulation, which was experimentally confirmed by Gilbert, who isolated the lac operon repressor (but whose 1980 Nobel Prize in chemistry was in recognition of other work), and by Ptashne, whose exploration of the phage lambda switch greatly elucidated the process by which regulatory proteins (repressors) switch on and off gene expression. Fire co-discovered RNA interference, an RNA-based gene control process, for which he shared a Nobel Prize in 2006. A second RNA-based gene control mechanism involving short strands of RNA called microRNA was co-discovered by Ruvkun. Cedar and Razin shared the 2008 Wolf Prize in Medicine for their role in the discovery of DNA methylation, which together with histone modification, co-discovered by Grunstein, forms the basis of the new field of epigenetics, which deals with the molecular mechanisms involved in gene activation and suppression by environmental influences. Levine's work on the organization and function of the homeobox genes (which he co-discovered) "has done for animal development what the work on the lac operon and phage lambda did for understanding gene regulation in simpler organisms."11 The discovery of these master genes and their role in development has "shattered our previous notions of animal relationships and of what made animals different, and opened up a whole new way of looking at evolution."12
The discovery of RNA and major contributions to the elucidation of its structure and function by Phoebus Levene, François Jacob, Sydney Brenner, Matthew Meselson, Sol Spiegelman, Sidney Altman, Sir Aaron Klug, Alexander Rich, Leslie Orgel, Andrew Fire, Gary Ruvkun, Roger Kornberg, Ada Yonath, and others. RNA was first identified as a nucleic acid distinct from DNA by Levene in the course of his seminal studies of the nucleic acids in the early part of the twentieth century. The concept of messenger RNA (mRNA) as an information-bearing DNA-to-ribosome intermediary in protein synthesis was first formulated by Jacob and Jacques Monod+ in 1961 and subsequently verified in experiments conducted by Brenner, Jacob, Meselson, and Spiegelman. The surprising catalytic properties of RNA were independently discovered by Altman and by Thomas Cech+, supporting the concept of a pre-biotic "RNA world," first proposed in 1963 by Rich and, independently a few years later, by Orgel and others. Definitive x-ray diffraction studies of RNA structure were first carried out independently by Klug and by Rich. Rich co-discovered double helical RNA and went on to discover the more general process of nucleic acid hybridization, whose further development would "become the technical foundation of modern molecular biology."13 Nucleic acid hybridization, e.g., lies at the heart of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which has revolutionized molecular biological research practice. Double helical RNA has recently been found to play a role in the control of gene expression in a process called RNA interference (RNAi), which was co-discovered by Fire. Another RNA control process regulating gene expression that involves very short, single-stranded RNA molecules called microRNA (miRNA) was co-discovered by Ruvkun. In recent years, sophisticated x-ray crystallographic analyses using synchrotron radiation sources were developed and employed by Kornberg to elucidate the structural dynamics of RNA-polymerase-directed DNA-to-mRNA transcription. Cryo-crystallographic and synchrotron radiation techniques were also developed and used by Ada Yonath to elucidate the structural dynamics of the process of translation, i.e., ribosomal protein synthesis, which involves mRNA, rRNA (ribosomal RNA), and tRNA (transfer RNA). These studies have revealed the ribosome to be, in fact, a very complex ribozyme (RNA enzyme). Jacob, Brenner, Altman, Klug, Fire, Kornberg, and Yonath were all awarded Nobel Prizes. Rich received the US National Medal of Science in 1995.
The co-invention of gene splicing by Stanley N. Cohen. Cohen and Herbert Boyer's+ invention opened up the new field of genetic engineering. Cohen and Boyer+ were recipients of both the US National Medal of Science and the US National Medal of Technology. The latter award cited them "for their fundamental discovery of gene splicing techniques allowing replication in quantity of biomedically important new products, and beneficially transformed plant materials. This discovery of recombinant DNA technology has transformed the basic science of molecular biology and the biotechnology industry." Other major contributors to genetic engineering include Paul Berg, Walter Gilbert, and Daniel Nathans, all of whom received Nobel Prizes for their work.
The discovery of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) by I. I. Rabi. Rabi received the 1944 Nobel Prize in physics for the demonstration of NMR in molecular beams. Felix Bloch shared the 1952 Nobel Prize in physics with Edward Purcell+ for their independent inventions of condensed matter NMR spectroscopy, which is important in biomolecular structure studies, as well as being the basis of the MRI diagnostic imaging technique.14
The invention of the flexible endoscope by Basil Hirschowitz, which has revolutionized surgery by greatly reducing the complexity and invasiveness of many surgical procedures. (This work, undertaken in the mid-1950s, led to the production of the first glass-clad optical fibers, which later revolutionized modern telecommunications.)
The co-invention of LASIK eye surgery by Samuel Blum (together with Rangaswamy Srinivasan+ and James Wynne+).
The invention of phacoemulsification cataract surgery by Charles Kelman, which is the technique most widely used for cataract removal worldwide. More than two hundred million such operations have been performed. It has revolutionized the procedure by completely eliminating the need for hospitalization, which had previously averaged one week. Kelman was a recipient of both the US National Medal of Technology in 1992 and the Lasker Award for Clinical Medical Research in 2004 (posthumously).
The invention of the cardiac defibrillator, external pacemaker, and cardiac monitor by Paul Zoll. Zoll (and, independently, Wilson Greatbatch+ ) later invented the implantable cardiac pacemaker. Michel Mirowski and Morton Mower were two of the four inventors of the automatic, implantable cardiac defibrillator.
The invention of the Heimlich Maneuver by Henry Heimlich.
The co-invention of the basic technique used worldwide for the controlled chlorination of drinking water supplies by Abel Wolman. Wolman and Linn Enslow's+ invention resulted in a dramatic reduction in the incidence of such waterborne diseases as cholera, dysentery, and typhoid fever; as such, it was arguably the single most important contribution to public health in the twentieth century. The number of lives thereby saved has been variously estimated as running into the hundreds of millions. Wolman received both the Lasker Award for Public Service in 1960 and the US National Medal of Science in 1974. The Abel Wolman Municipal Building, one of the largest buildings in Baltimore, MD (where he taught at Johns Hopkins), was named in his honor.
NOTES
1. Manasseh ben Israel, The Hope of Israel (London, 1652), reprinted in Manasseh ben Israel's Mission to Oliver Cromwell, edited by Lucien Wolf (London, 1901, pp. 50-51).
2. Winston Churchill, History of the English-Speaking Peoples, Vol. 1 (Cassell, London, 1956).
3. Frank Heynick, Jews and Medicine: An Epic Saga (KTAV, Hoboken, NJ, 2002).
4. Ibid., p. 123.
5. Ibid., pp. 124,130-131.
6. Ibid., p. 13.
7. For statistics on Vienna, see Vienna and the Jews, 1867-1938: A Cultural History, by Steven Beller (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1989, pp. 36-
37); on Berlin, see
Germany Without

[Akzle]

no fucken way i'm reading all that. summarise it. it's also highly likely you've failed to comprehend my use of the word jew.

although, on that. NZ will no longer recognise Israel as anything other than a militant occupying force. And Zionists can fuck off and die.


also, it was clear in my head but not on paper:
i envision the lowest 20-30% of drivers will not even make C grade, so be off the road immediately.

[Viking01]

Morning.

1. Point of Clarification

Q: Were you planning to rule as a benevolent dictator, or were you planning
to embrace this MMP arrangement and join a coalition as a partner ?

It's that, well, I perceived some possible areas of policy conflict with both
NZ First and the Greens.


2. Policy List

See that rollout and expansion of your policy list is making progress.

Your Communities (LGBTQ; Gambling; Senior Citizens) and Drugs (All of Them)
policies seem well advanced.

Understand your desire to produce a well balanced range of policies that will
appeal to your constituents (or subjects, depending upon the answer to 1.
above)

No criticism intended, your Majesty, but I did notice a few possible omissions
from your list (and which might need your attention and your light touch in the
future).

A few uncontentious ones that caught my eye were:

Environment: Climate Change / Emissions Trading / The RMA / Water Rights
Families: Womens Issues / Womens Economic Development
Health: Mental Health
Housing: Social Housing / Speculation
Income: Benefits and Income Support
Justice: Corrections / Firearms
Maori: Treaty of Waitangi / Te Reo
Welfare: Superannuation

and if you could squeeze in one of my favourites as well:

Fisheries: Fishing (must always have a good fishing policy)

I have purposely let out The Economy, Affairs (Foreign or otherwise) and Taxation
for the time being.

No rush. Creating good policy takes time. Carry on.

[Akzle]

Morning.

1. Point of Clarification

Q: Were you planning to rule as a benevolent dictator, or were you planning
to embrace this MMP arrangement and join a coalition as a partner ?

It's that, well, I perceived some possible areas of policy conflict with both
NZ First and the Greens.


2. Policy List

See that rollout and expansion of your policy list is making progress.

Your Communities (LGBTQ; Gambling; Senior Citizens) and Drugs (All of Them)
policies seem well advanced.

Understand your desire to produce a well balanced range of policies that will
appeal to your constituents (or subjects, depending upon the answer to 1.
above)

No criticism intended, your Majesty, but I did notice a few possible omissions
from your list (and which might need your attention and your light touch in the
future).

A few uncontentious ones that caught my eye were:

Environment: Climate Change / Emissions Trading / The RMA / Water Rights
Families: Womens Issues / Womens Economic Development
Health: Mental Health
Housing: Social Housing / Speculation
Income: Benefits and Income Support
Justice: Corrections / Firearms
Maori: Treaty of Waitangi / Te Reo
Welfare: Superannuation

and if you could squeeze in one of my favourites as well:

Fisheries: Fishing (must always have a good fishing policy)

I have purposely let out The Economy, Affairs (Foreign or otherwise) and Taxation
for the time being.

No rush. Creating good policy takes time. Carry on.

i have most of the answers you seek. you'll get them when i get a PC.

you're votng a king. benevolent dictator if you feel better that way. the cabinet as it is, will be dissolved. so too the monetary economy.
commercial fishing will be banned.
one-way policy on domestic rubbish, return-to-maker policy on dumped rubbish.
More later.

[Grumph]

Please amend the penal code to include death for anyone posting anything longer than 3 paragraphs on a bike forum - unless it's genuine technical information...
Thanking you in advance, your majesty.

[Viking01]

"Your Majesty". You little groveler !

Whereas in my case, I was simply hoping that by showing a deferential tone at this
stage, I could avoid being delegated to shoveling sh$% out of the royal stables
after he had finalised the Racing policy.

My only hope was that he had some-one far better equipped in mind for that job.

[Grumph]

"Your Majesty". You little groveler !

Whereas in my case, I was simply hoping that by showing a deferential tone at this
stage, I could avoid being delegated to shoveling sh$% out of the royal stables
after he had finalised the Racing policy.

My only hope was that he had some-one far better equipped in mind for that job.

It's "old piss-taker" to you...

And i'm too old to survive under his regime anyway.

[crack]

Please amend the penal code to include death for anyone posting anything longer than 3 paragraphs on a bike forum - unless it's genuine technical information...
Thanking you in advance, your majesty.

Rush off and hang myself!:devil2:

After Ive had a sound spanking from the misses:

Yep Sorry, twas a bit ott, But interesting anway, I thought.

I say fuck em all, slott em all, non of us is getting out alive.

Now I go to register my scooter, $560 some dollars, and they say it justified.:mad::ar15::ar15:

[Berries]

w. Saw your avatar and was a bit taken aback. One of our more interesting members used it a few years back.

You mean while I have been incarcerated, (I didnt kill them honestly) :laugh:and undergone years of rectal prodding in the showers, someone stole my AVATAR!:2guns:

I did see a brief mention of The Jewish Culture on here.

I do not subscribe to anti semanticism, anti-semitic Ideology.

My reasoning is that I have studied history, & Jewish History, and their is no doubt they are our creators, (whoever you wish to call him) chosen people.

The Jewish people make up Under 1% of the worlds population, yet their contributions to Human Kind is HUGE.

A dear and now passed on, friend and colleague, "Steve" AKA JAWS, as a young Pilot officer saw service in the last months of world war two, he was detailed to fly politicians and those accused of war crimes, he and his mates went to the camps of extermination and visited to look at the accused of these horrendous crimes, he said they looked just like you and me, He could not figure out what had gone on in their head.

When they saw the "Bitch of Bergen-Belsen" we wanted to see how ugly this bitch "Irma Grese" was and we took bets as to who amongst us would do her if able! (young guys in their late teens/early 20's).

When they were taken to see her, she was used to having visits from such as Jaws and his mates, out of human interest, she did not like it, she apparently screamed, and nutted off that the polish guard entered her cell, punched her, threw her to the ground, then kicked her with his hobbed boats in the ribs so hard they heard the crack:

He/ dear old Steve, said he still dreamt of this ugly cow and her pure hatred, it shocked and scared him and his mates, (no one did her:laugh:)

They went along to watch her Hang instead.

Have a read if you wish, I leave it to you to form your own opinion.

y Luana Goriss
Updated July 03, 2017
Considering that the Jewish people constitute a mere one-half of one percent of the world's population, Jewish contributions to religion, science, literature, music, medicine, finance, philosophy, entertainment etc., is staggering.

In the field of medicine alone, Jewish contributions are staggering and continue to be so. It was a Jew who created the first polio vaccine, who discovered insulin, who discovered that aspirin dealt with pain, who discovered chloral hydrate for convulsions, who discovered streptomycin, who discovered the origin and spread of infectious diseases, who invented the test for diagnosis of syphilis, who identified the first cancer virus, who discovered the cure for pellagra and added to the knowledge about yellow fever, typhoid, typhus, measles, diphtheria and influenza.

Today, Israel, a nation only sixty years old, has emerged at the forefront of stem-cell research, which will, in the near future, give humanity unprecedented medical treatment for degenerative diseases.

There is a passage in the Talmud that says: “We find in the case of Cain, who killed his brother, that it is written: The bloods of thy brother cry unto me: not the blood of thy brother, but the bloods of thy brother is said, that is, his blood and the blood of his potential descendants.” (Sanhedrin 37a, 37-38.)

Over the past 2,000 years in particular, millions of Jews have been killed in Inquisitions, Pogroms, and more recently, the horror of the Holocaust. One wonders how much more humanity could have gained from the descendants of those murdered and their potential contributions to mankind.

Below is a short list of some of the most important contributions Jewish individuals have made to society.

Jewish Contributions to Society
Albert Einstein Physicist
Jonas Salk Created first Polio Vaccine.
Albert Sabin Developed the oral vaccine for Polio.
Galileo Discovered the speed of light
Selman Waksman Discovered Streptomycin. Coined the word 'antibiotic'.
Gabriel Lipmann Discovered color photography.
Baruch Blumberg Discovered origin and spread of infectious diseases.
G. Edelman Discovered chemical structure of antibodies.
Briton Epstein Identified first cancer virus.
Maria Meyer Structure of atomic nuclei.
Julius Mayer Discovered law of thermodynamics.
Sigmund Freud Father of Psychotherapy.
Christopher Columbus (Marano) Discovered the Americas.
Benjamin Disraeli Prime Minister of Great Britain 1804-1881
Isaac Singer Invented the sewing machine.
Levi Strauss Largest manufacturer of Denim Jeans.
Joseph Pulitzer Established 'Pulitzer Prize' for achievements in journalism, literature, music & art.

And the remnant of Jacob shall be in the midst of many peoples, as dew from the Lord, as showers upon the grass..." MICAH 5:6*

JEWISH NOBEL PRIZE WINNERS
CHEMISTRY
ECONOMICS
LITERATURE
MEDICINE
PEACE
PHYSICS
JEWS IN ANTHROPOLOGY
JEWS IN BIOMEDICAL SCIENCE
JEWS IN CHEMISTRY
JEWS IN CHESS
JEWS IN COMPUTER & INFORMATION SCIENCE
JEWS IN ECONOMICS
JEWS IN LINGUISTICS
JEWS IN LITERATURE
JEWS IN MATHEMATICS
JEWS IN MUSIC
JEWS IN PHILOSOPHY
JEWS IN PHYSICS
JEWS IN PSYCHOLOGY
JEWS IN SOCIOLOGY
REFLECTIONS ON JUDAISM AND THE JEWS
THE WHAT, WHY, & WHO OF THIS WEBSITE

The purpose of this website is to provide an online resource that accurately describes the Jewish contribution to the cultural, scientific, and technological evolution of civilization. Although there are scores of websites currently on the Internet that purport to characterize the Jews and their impact on the world, nearly all of them are sponsored by groups whose ultimate objectives vis-à-vis the Jews range from defamation to outright elimination. Many of the classic works of the anti-Semitic canon, once confined to the fever swamps, have become widely available via these websites, a few of which actually display legal disclaimers concerning their potential for incitement to "unlawful or criminal acts." (The composer Arnold Schoenberg once asked in this connection: "What is anti-Semitism to lead to if not acts of violence? Is it so difficult to imagine that?")

JINFO.ORG has no outside organizational affiliation or sponsorship. The website is an evolving project with new sections being added periodically. Statistical metrics are extensively employed because they are the most efficient technique for objectively summarizing and conveying an overall view of the large quantities of data involved.

Concerning Jewish identity, the vast majority (over 90%) of the individuals listed here as being Jewish are such by virtue of having had two Jewish parents. Also included, however, are individuals with one Jewish parent, as well as a number of Jews-by-choice, with the listings of individuals in the latter two categories qualified as such. In adopting this criterion for inclusion, we have followed the practice employed by the Jewish encyclopedias for more than a century.

CONTACT JINFO.ORG

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Reproduction of any part of this website
without the express, prior written permission of JINFO.ORG is prohibited.

* The passage numbered Micah 5:6 in Jewish Bibles is numbered 5:7 in Christian Bibles.
JEWS IN THE MEDICAL & LIFE SCIENCES
JINFO.ORG
Prior to presenting his appeal to Oliver Cromwell for the readmission of the Jews, who had been expelled from England in 1290, Manasseh ben Israel wrote in The Hope of Israel 1: "Hence it may be seen that God hath not left us; for if one persecutes us, another receives us civilly and courteously; and if this prince treats us ill, another treats us well; if one banisheth us out of his country, another invites us with a thousand privileges ... and do we not see that those Republiques do flourish and much increase in trade who admit the Israelites?" But it was not for their economic prowess alone that the Jews were valued, it was for a whole host of skills, not the least of which was their expertise in the medical arts.

Winston Churchill, writing of the expulsion referred to above, states: "The Jews, held up to universal hatred, were pillaged, maltreated, and finally expelled from the realm. Exception was made for certain physicians without whose skill persons of consequence might have lacked due attention."2 Indeed, more often than not, the chief court physicians of the rulers of Europe were Jews or crypto-Jews. To cite but a few examples, Frederick III of the Holy Roman Empire, Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, Elizabeth I of England, Louis XIV of France, Catherine de Medici, and Catherine the Great of Russia all at one time or another employed Jewish personal physicians.3 Nor was it only the secular rulers of Christendom that depended on Jewish medical skills. As the Spanish philosopher and theologian Ramon Lull (Raymond Lully) complained in the thirteenth century: "Jews are universally entrusted by the great with the care of their health. Nor is the Church free from this abomination, for nearly every monastery has its Jewish physician."4 Among the many Popes who maintained Jewish personal physicians were Martin IV, Nicholas IV, Boniface VIII, Alexander VI, Julius II, Leo X, Clement VII, Paul III, Gregory XV, Urban VIII, and Innocent X.5

Much the same situation prevailed in Dar al-Islam, where, e.g., Maimonides served as court physician to Saladin the Great's Vizier Al-Fadhil and later to Saladin's son and successor. Jews also figured prominently as translators and transmitters to the Moslem world of the medical scholarship of the ancient Greeks, and would later play a similar role in transmitting to Europe the scholarship of Moslem physicians such as Avicenna. In the late Middle Ages, the Jews, numbering only about 1% of Europe's population, constituted roughly half of its physicians.6 During the last of the great European Jewish expulsions in the 1930s, the medical centers of Vienna and Berlin lost nearly half of their physicians and the majority of their medical school faculties.7 Many fled to America, helping to fuel its meteoric rise to preeminence in biomedical research; Jews have accounted for some 40% of US Nobel Prizes in medicine and constitute over one-third of the combined membership of the life sciences divisions of the US National Academy of Sciences and its affiliated Institute of Medicine.

The following links contain lists of prominent Jewish scientists and recipients of major international awards in the biomedical field. The last link below contains an analysis showing that of all the lives saved by all the scientific and medical advances in human history, more than three-fourths of those lives were saved by advances for which Jews constituted fifty percent or more of the principal developers.
Jewish Biomedical & Life Scientists
Jewish Recipients of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (27% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the Lasker Award in Basic Medical Research (32% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the Gairdner Foundation Awards (26% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the Wolf Prize in Medicine (41% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize (43% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the GM Cancer Research Foundation Sloan Prize (38% of recipients)
Jews Among the Creators of History's Greatest Lifesaving Medical & Scientific Advances (estimated 2.8 billion lives saved)
Some of the more notable Jewish contributions to the medical and biological sciences in the modern era are listed below. (The names of non-Jewish scientists mentioned in the accompanying discussion have been denoted with the superscript "+" in order to avoid confusion.)

The invention of local anesthesia by Carl Koller and the discovery of Novocaine by Alfred Einhorn.
The discovery that pancreatic dysfunction is the cause of diabetes by Oskar Minkowski (together with Joseph von Mering+) and the subsequent discovery that this dysfunction involves a deficiency in the hormonal secretions of the islets of Langerhans by Moses Barron. The work of the Canadian team that isolated insulin (Banting+, Best+, Collip+, and Macleod+) was based on these two prior discoveries.
The discovery of the ABO and other human blood groups and of the Rh factor by Karl Landsteiner. (The M, N, and P blood groups were co-discovered with Philip Levine and the Rh factor was co-discovered with Alexander Wiener). Landsteiner received the 1930 Nobel Prize for this work, which made safe blood transfusions possible for the first time. Landsteiner is also considered to be one of the giants of immunology, having made major contributions to the understanding of the chemical basis of antigen-antibody Jews, by Bernt Engelmann (Bantam, New York, 1984, pp. 59-60).
8. Billy Woodward et al., Scientists Greater than Einstein: The Biggest Lifesavers of the Twentieth Century (Linden, Chicago, 2009, pp. 315, 321).
9. Heynick, Jews and Medicine: An Epic Saga, p.461.
10. See http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1119266.
11. See profile of Michael S. Levine by Karen Hopkin in The Scientist (Vol. 21, No. 3, 2007, p. 58).
12. Endless Forms Most Beautiful: The New Science of Evo Devo, by Sean Carroll (W.W. Norton, New York, 2005, p. 9).
13. See Discovering the RNA Double Helix and Hybridization, by Alexander Varshavsky in Cell (Vol. 127, 29 December 2006, pp. 1295-1297).
14. The image reconstruction algorithm employed in all tomographic imaging is based on the Radon transform, which was invented by the Austrian mathematician Johann Radon+ in 1917. In his paper, Radon+ states that his result is based on the prior work of Hermann Minkowski and Paul Funk. Minkowski was the younger brother of the above-mentioned physiologist Oskar Minkowski. Paul Funk was a Czech-Jewish mathematician who survived internment in the Nazi concentration camp at Terezín (Theresienstadt). Gábor Frank obtained the first patents for x-ray tomographic scanning (1938 patents in both Hungary and Germany). Unlike Funk, he did not return from the camps. See Made in Hungary, by Andrew Simon (Simon Publications, Safety Harbor, FL, 1999, p. 266).
A Brief History
On June 19, 1269, the King of France, Louis IX, ordered that any Jew found in any public place not wearing the obligatory yellow badge would be fined 10 livres of silver. (Note: The livre was the monetary unit in France before 1795 when they came up with the franc. The word stems from the Latin word for “pound” and the original livre in 781 CE was 1 pound of silver.) People of Jewish faith or lineage have suffered discrimination and worse for many centuries. Meanwhile, many Jewish scientists, composers, educators, and artists of all types among others have enriched mankind. For example, 3 of the 7 justices on the US Supreme Court are Jewish. (Some of the inventions of Jews; safety razor, printed circuit board, cell phone, transistor, computer mouse, defibrillator, Esperanto, video tape, the Corvette, and the cotton swab.) Here we list 10 of the greatest contributions of people of Jewish background to the United States and the World. Who else would you include? (Note: The arbitrary order listed does not denote relative value of the contribution.)

Digging Deeper
10. Julius Fromm, Latex Condom.


With the loosening of sexual inhibitions after the prudish Victorian age, people obviously needed protection against unwanted pregnancy and disease. Condoms then were made of natural “skin” substances (animal intestines) and of rubber. The rubber condoms were made by wrapping layers of rubber around a mold and then cooking it. Fromm invented a way to make the latex liquid and manufacture the condoms by dipping a mold into the liquid. His invention was made in 1916, and the thinner, cheaper condom was a big success throughout Europe. He also invented the condom vending machine in 1928, leading to the gas station bathroom graffiti, “Don’t buy this gum, it tastes like rubber!”

9. Ruth Handler, Barbie Doll.


Ranking close to the Teddy Bear in the hearts of American children, Barbie has kept girls company since 1959. Handler and her husband were co-founders of Mattel (with Harold Matson) and were manufacturing plastic items such as picture frames when Ruth got the inspiration for Barbie from their daughter, Barbara. The invention of Barbie has made millions of little girls happy and millions of parents wondering where their money went when Barbie “needed” all those accessories.

8. Morris Michtom, Teddy Bear.


Taking inspiration from a cartoon of President Teddy Roosevelt showing a little bear mercy while hunting, Morris and his wife Rose created the Teddy Bear and turned it into an American icon. Cracked fact: Their daughter appeared in 40+ episodes of the television show, Get Smart as a background character.

7. Benjamin Disraeli, British Statesman.


Although born a Sephardic Jew, Disraeli’s father had his family switch to Anglican when Ben was 12, obviously to blend in to British society. (Anglican is the state religion of the United Kingdom.) Disraeli went on to a distinguished career in British politics, serving as Prime Minister and as Chancellor of the Exchequer, as well as a Conservative member of Parliament.

6. Laszlo Biro, Ball Point Pen.


Just think, before 1944 when this Hungarian Jew invented the ball point pen, there were no copy machines and the use of carbon paper to make handwritten copies must have been horrendous with a fountain pen. Smudge free writing and many times less likely to cause a laundry disaster than a fountain pen. Thanks Laszlo!

5. Claude Levi-Strauss, Anthropology.


No he did not invent blue jeans (probably wishes he did!). Claude is called the Father of Modern Anthropology for his work concerning structuralism and structural anthropology. He also studied mythology and applied his structuralist approach to that field. President of France (at the time) Nicolas Sarkozy called him “The greatest ethnologist of our time.” upon his death at age 100 in 2009. Born in Belgium, Levi-Strauss spent most of his life in France.

4. J. Robert Oppenheimer and Edward Teller, Nuclear Physics.


Whether you think nuclear weapons are a good thing or not, Oppenheimer is considered the Father of the Atomic Bomb and Teller is considered the Father of the Hydrogen Bomb. Both were born into Jewish families and both worked in the United States, although Teller was born in Hungary. The fact that these scientists enabled the US to be the first to get nuclear weapons may well have prevented a catastrophe for the Western world had the Soviets or Chinese gotten such weapons first.

3. Sanford “Sandy” Koufax, Baseball.


Born Sanford Braun, Koufax played only 11 years of big league baseball, but what spectacular years they were. He pitched 4 no hitters, struck out 2396 batters and had a career ERA of 2.76. Along with Nolan Ryan, Koufax is one of only two pitchers in the Hall of Fame that struck out more batters than innings they pitched. Amazing fact: In Koufax’s last year (1966) he was 27-9 with a 1.73 ERA! His salary for that fantastic season; a career high $125,000. Koufax famously refused to pitch a World Series game on Yom Kippur, a Jewish holy day.

2. Sigmund Schlomo Freud, Psychoanalysis.


This Austrian Jew is the Father of Psychoanalysis and as such greatly influenced those psychiatrists that came after him. His research and thinking is some of the most influential and insightful delving into the human mind of all time. Cracked fact: Freud thought that the fear of castration among males is provoked by uncircumcised boys seeing boys that are circumcised and as such this constitutes the root of anti-Semitism. Additionally, Freud thought that belief in God is an “illusion” and basically exists to calm man’s fear of “nature” and death.

1. Albert Einstein, Science.


Among other things, Einstein is most famous for his Special and General Theories of Relativity, and for his equation, E= MC2². Often referred to as the smartest man in history, Einstein was in the United States when Hitler and the Nazis took power in Germany where Einstein had been working as a professor in Berlin. Einstein chose to stay in the US as he rightly figured going back to Germany was suicidal. Fun facts: No one knows what Einstein’s last words were because he spoke them in German and no German speaking person was present. Recently discovered correspondence indicates that Einstein was probably an atheist, although he never said so publicly.

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What the Jewish people have done militarily for their tiny nation, has the respect of their allies , and their enemies alike.

:Offtopic:
interaction.
The development of the sodium citrate blood storage technique by Richard Lewisohn. Prior to Lewisohn's work in 1913, blood could not be stored and had to be transfused directly between donor and recipient. The use of sodium citrate as an anticoagulant, together with the use of refrigeration (introduced by Richard Weil), permitted creation of the first blood banks. Lewisohn and Karl Landsteiner (see above) are considered to be the two researchers most responsible for the invention of modern blood transfusion, which is estimated to have saved in excess of one billion lives since the 1950s alone, making it the single greatest lifesaving medical advance in history.8
The introduction of the side-chain theory of antibody formation by Paul Ehrlich, which has evolved into clonal selection theory, the central paradigm of modern immunology. Ehrlich shared the 1908 Nobel Prize with Élie Metchnikoff* for their independent contributions to immunology. Ehrlich is also considered to be the founder of modern chemotherapeutic medicine. His development of Salvarsan (1909) and Neosalvarsan (1911) constituted the first effective treatment for syphilis and, in the words of Sir Alexander Fleming+, "the beginning - and a magnificent beginning - of bacterial chemotherapy." 9
The isolation and development of penicillin by Sir Ernst Chain. Chain shared the 1945 Nobel Prize for this work with Sir Alexander Fleming+ and Sir Howard Florey+. It was Chain who recognized the potential of Fleming's+ nearly forgotten discovery of the antibacterial properties of Penicillium molds (one of many agents then known to have such properties). Chain, a biochemist, was able to isolate the active antibacterial substance, viz., penicillin, and to work out its molecular structure (later confirmed in the Nobel-Prize-winning x-ray diffraction work of Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin+). Using samples that Chain produced, Chain and Florey+ demonstrated penicillin's stability, nontoxicity, and effectiveness against staphylococcal, streptococcal, and clostridial infections in laboratory animals and humans.
The development of streptomycin by Selman Waksman and Albert Schatz. Waksman received the 1952 Nobel Prize for this work, which created the first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis, for which (in combination with other drugs) it remains a therapeutic mainstay.
The development of isoniazid by Herbert Fox and Harry Yale. Although isoniazid, the leading drug used in the treatment of tuberculosis since the mid-1950s, was first synthesized in 1912 by Josef Mally+ and Hans Leopold Meyer (who later died in the Nazi concentration camp at Terezín), its anti-tubercular properties were not discovered until the early 1950s, when it was independently re-synthesized and clinically explored by three separate groups. These were headed, respectively, by Fox at Hoffmann-La Roche, Yale at Squibb, and Gerhard Domagk+ at Bayer. Isoniazid, used early on in combination with streptomycin and a third drug, para-amino salicylic acid (PAS), and more recently in combination with other drugs, has saved over a hundred million lives since the 1950s. (PAS was developed by Jörgen Lehmann+ in Denmark, based on studies carried out by Frederick Bernheim in the US. In these studies, Bernheim established the metabolic role of salicylic acid in the tubercle bacillus. PAS is basically designed to interfere with these salicylate-dependant metabolic processes, ultimately impairing or killing the bacillus.) In a related, but separate development, iproniazid, an isoniazid derivative first synthesized by Fox in 1951 as a potential anti-tubercular agent, was found to have powerful anti-depressant effects. It subsequently became the basis for the MAOIs (mono-amine oxidase inhibitors) that revolutionized the treatment of clinical depression in the post-war period.
The isolation of cortisone by Tadeus Reichstein. Reichstein shared the 1950 Nobel Prize with Edward Kendall+ and Philip Hench+. Reichstein and Kendall+ were recognized for having independently isolated and characterized the hormones of the adrenal cortex, the most important of which was cortisone.
The chemical synthesis of cortisone by Lewis Sarett*, Max Tishler, and Carl Djerassi. Sarett, working under Tishler at Merck, achieved the first chemical synthesis of the compound. With subsequent improvements by Tishler, Sarett's synthesis made cortisone a commercially available drug for the first time. Further advances achieved independently by Djerassi and by Percy Julian+ made economically viable, large-scale production possible. Sarett, Tishler, and Djerassi were all awarded US National Medals of Science (in 1975, 1987, and 1973, respectively).
The development of aspirin by Arthur Eichengrun and Felix Hoffmann+. Aspirin is an artificially modified form of salicylic acid, a naturally occurring substance that can be obtained from the bark of willow trees, whose analgesic properties have been known since antiquity. Salicylic acid is, however, very poorly tolerated by the digestive system, which greatly limits its medicinal value. Early attempts to reduce its toxicity through acetylation failed to yield acetylsalicylic acid of sufficient purity to be medicinally useful. The first successful synthesis of pure acetylsalicylic acid was achieved in 1897 by Felix Hoffmann+, working at F. Bayer & Co. in Germany. Recently developed evidence indicates, however, that credit for this development should have gone equally, or even predominantly, to Hoffmann's+ Jewish supervisor, Arthur Eichengrun.10
The discovery of prostaglandins by M. W. Goldblatt. (Also discovered independently by Ulf von Euler+.) Sir John Vane* was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1982 for demonstrating that the anti-inflammatory and analgesic action of aspirin-like drugs was via their inhibition of prostaglandin production. Vane also discovered the vasodilator prostacyclin, which led directly to the development of the ACE inhibitors that are widely used in the treatment of hypertension, heart failure, and other vascular diseases. The development of the COX-2 selective inhibitors (such as the "super-aspirin" Celebrex, widely used by severe arthritis sufferers) was largely the work of Philip Needleman.
The discovery of neurotransmitters by Otto Loewi. Loewi shared the 1936 Nobel Prize with Sir Henry Dale+ for their independent work on acetylcholine. Sir Bernard Katz and Julius Axelrod shared the 1970 Nobel Prize with Ulf von Euler+ for advanced work on neurotransmitters. Their work led directly to the development of the class of anti-depressants that includes Prozac, Zoloft, and Paxil. Axelrod, together with Bernard Brodie, Leon Greenberg, and David Lester, was largely responsible for the development of the pain reliever acetaminophen (Tylenol).
The discovery of endorphins and enkephalins by Solomon Snyder and Hans Kosterlitz, respectively. The discovery by Snyder of the opioid receptors in the mammalian nervous system led to the further discovery of endorphins and enkephalins, endogenous opioids that help to control mood and pain. The opioid receptors play a large role in the action of pain killers such as morphine. This new understanding of opioid action has in turn led to the development of synthetic pain killing substitutes with diminished potential for addiction. Snyder and Kosterlitz shared the 1978 Lasker Award in Basic Medical Research for this work.
The discovery and characterization of growth factors by Rita Levi-Montalcini, Viktor Hamburger, and Stanley H. Cohen. Levi-Montalcini and Cohen shared the 1986 Nobel Prize for their identification and isolation of the nerve and epidermal growth factors, respectively. Growth factors (others of which were subsequently discovered) are protein molecular "signals" emitted by cells to control growth and differentiation in neighboring cells. Cohen also elucidated the biochemical pathways through which growth factors act after binding to receptors on the outer membranes of target cells. Growth factors play a large role in embryonic development and are thought to have potential medical application in nerve regeneration, accelerated wound healing, and in the understanding and control of tumor cell proliferation. The "blockbuster" drug Herceptin for treating breast and other cancers is based, in part, on Cohen's epidermal growth factor research.
The development of Warfarin (Coumadin) anticoagulant therapy by Shepard Shapiro. Warfarin is the most commonly used anticoagulant for the prevention of heart attacks and strokes. It is also one of the most widely prescribed medications in the world. It was discovered in 1946 by Karl Paul Link+, who developed it as a rat poison. Its identification and development for use in human anticoagulant therapy resulted from the work of Shapiro in the early 1950s. Previously, in the early 1940s, Shapiro had pioneered the clinical use of the anti-clotting agent methylene dicoumarin (dicoumarol), which was also discovered by Link+.
The development of oral contraceptives by Gregory Pincus, Carl Djerassi, and Frank Colton.
The development of the Salk and Sabin polio vaccines by Jonas Salk and Albert Sabin, respectively. The resulting worldwide near-eradication of polio is estimated to be preventing over one-half million new cases of lifelong paralysis each year. The discovery that the causative agent in polio was, in fact, a virus was made in 1908 by Karl Landsteiner and Erwin Popper.
The development of the hepatitis-B vaccine by Baruch Blumberg and Irving Millman. Blumberg received the 1976 Nobel Prize, in part for this work, which has saved an estimated six-to-seven million lives.
The co-discovery of interferon by Alick Isaacs (in collaboration with Jean Lindenmann+). The large-scale production of recombinant interferon for medical use (a market currently in excess of $15 billion annually) is based largely on the work of Charles Weissmann and Sidney Pestka. Pestka received the US National Medal of Technology in 2001. Interferons are widely used in the treatment of multiple sclerosis, leukemias and lymphomas, melanomas, and hepatitis B and C.
The co-invention of monoclonal antibodies by César Milstein. Milstein shared the 1984 Nobel Prize with Georges Köhler+ for this work. Four of the top ten "blockbuster" anti-cancer drugs, including the top three, are now based on monoclonal antibody technology. The development of all four drugs was based on the application of this research to other research conducted by Jewish scientists. Specifically, Rituxan is based on the non-Hodgkin's lymphoma research of Ronald Levy; Avastin is based on the angiogenesis research pioneered by Judah Folkman; Herceptin is based on the the epidermal growth factor research of Stanley H. Cohen and the HER-2/neu protein research of Robert Weinberg, Jeffrey Drebin, and Mark Greene; and Erbitux is based on research by Michael Sela and John Mendelsohn. The combined annual sales of these four drugs are in excess of $20 billion. (Of the remaining six "small molecule" drugs among the top ten blockbuster anti-cancer agents, at least two are based on the research of Jewish scientists. Specifically, Velcade is based on work by Julian Adams, Avram Hershko, Alexander Varshavsky, Aaron Ciechanover, and Irwin Rose; and Gleevec is based, in part, on the research of Brian Druker.)
The invention of cancer chemotherapy by Louis Goodman, Alfred Gilman, and Sidney Farber. In the early 1940s, Goodman and Gilman discovered the effectiveness of mechlorethamine ("nitrogen mustard") in the treatment of lymphatic malignancies. In the late 1940s, Farber produced the first chemically induced remissions from leukemia using the folic acid inhibitors aminopterin and methotrexate. Eventually mechlorethamine and methotrexate, used in combination with other anti-cancer agents (mechlorethamine is the "M" in MOPP) and radiation, would lead to cures for many previously fatal lymphomas and leukemias, respectively.
The co-development of 6-MP (6-mercaptopurine) by Gertrude Elion, which used in combination with methotrexate and other drugs, has led to cures for most forms of childhood leukemia. Elion was also the co-developer of azathioprine (Imuran), the immunosuppressant that made organ transplants possible between individuals other than identical twins, and of acyclovir (Zovirax) for the treatment of herpes viral infections. Elion and George Hitchings+ received the 1988 Nobel Prize for their joint work.
The discovery and development of cisplatin by Barnett Rosenberg, which has led to a complete reversal in the prognosis for testicular cancer, a malignancy that had almost always been fatal and is now roughly 90% curable. The chemotherapeutic protocols for the use of cisplatin in the treatment and cure of testicular cancer were developed by Lawrence Einhorn (who supervised the successful treatment of Tour de France champion Lance Armstrong+).
The revolutionizing of radiation oncology by Henry Kaplan. Kaplan, the long-time head of radiology at Stanford Medical School, introduced the use of megavolt x-ray therapy in the 1950s, using linear accelerators (LINACs) to generate the required high-energy radiation. The medical LINAC is now the primary tool used in radiation oncology worldwide. Since the 1950s, an estimated forty million cancer patients have received such radiation treatments. (Currently about half of all cancer patients receive radiotherapy, primarily from LINAC-generated x-rays.) Even more significantly, Kaplan and his associates demonstrated that radiotherapy could be employed as a curative, rather than a merely palliative, cancer treatment. By the late 1970s, using radiotherapy protocols largely developed by Kaplan and his group, cure rates of 70%-80% were being achieved in patients with early-stage Hodgkin's lymphoma, which had previously been a uniformly fatal disease. Kaplan and Saul Rosenberg were the first to apply chemotherapy as an adjunct to radiation therapy in Hodgkin's disease, their regimens achieving initial cure rates in the late 1970s of 30%-40% in late-stage Hodgkin's disease. (With subsequent dramatic improvements in chemotherapy, the primary and secondary roles of radiation and chemotherapy have been reversed; cure rates are now 98% in early-stage Hodgkin's disease and 85% in advanced disease.) Kaplan and his associates were also responsible for the clinical trial studies that established the utility of the histopathologic classification scheme for non-Hodgkin's lymphomas proposed by Henry Rappaport in 1956. Although not widely accepted at the time, the Rappaport classification (with subsequent modifications) has become the most widely used in the staging and treatment of non-Hodgkin's lymphomas. For his pioneering work in radiation oncology, Kaplan became in 1969 the only biomedical scientist to be awarded the prestigious Atoms for Peace Award.
The co-discovery of oncogenes by Harold Varmus and the elucidation of their role in human cancer by Robert Weinberg, Michael Wigler, Bert Vogelstein, Arnold Levine, and others. Varmus shared the 1989 Nobel Prize with Michael Bishop+ for this work.
The discovery of retroviruses and their associated reverse transcriptase enzyme by David Baltimore and Howard Temin. Baltimore and Temin shared the 1975 Nobel Prize for their independent discovery of these viruses, which are implicated in AIDS and in some cancers, and whose existence disproved the "central dogma" of molecular biology.
The development of AZT, protease inhibitors, and other drugs used in the treatment of AIDS by Jerome Horwitz, Samuel Broder, and Irving Sigal. AZT (Retrovir), which was originally synthesized by Horwitz for use as an anti-cancer agent, proved to be the first of the reverse transcriptase inhibitors found effective against HIV. Its identification as such in clinical trials was largely the result of efforts led by Broder, who also co-developed two other reverse transcriptase inhibitors (ddl and ddC). Sigal, who was senior director of molecular biology at Merck prior to his death in the 1988 bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland, was the first to demonstrate the effectiveness of protease inhibitors against HIV. Used in combination, the various reverse transcriptase and protease inhibitors have dramatically improved the outlook for AIDS patients.
The elucidation of the biochemistry of cellular metabolism by Otto Warburg*, Otto Meyerhof, Gustav Embden, Jacob Parnas, Sir Hans Krebs, Fritz Lipmann, Herman Kalckar, Carl Neuberg, Gerty Cori, Konrad Bloch, and others. This includes much of the basic work on glycolysis (Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway), the urea and citric acid cycles (Krebs cycles), the pentose phosphate pathway, and oxidative phosphorylation and the role of ATP, as well as significant contributions to the characterization of glycogen and fatty acid metabolism. Warburg, Meyerhof, Krebs, Lipmann, Cori, and Bloch all received Nobel Prizes.
The invention of radioisotopic tracer techniques by George de Hevesy, Friedrich Paneth, Rudolf Schoenheimer, David Rittenberg, Martin Kamen, William Hassid, and Samuel Ruben. Hevesy and Paneth introduced the general technique, for which Hevesy won the 1943 Nobel Prize in chemistry; Kamen and Ruben discovered the long-lived carbon-14 radioisotope, which has had widespread application in biology (and is also the basis of radiocarbon dating). Melvin Calvin employed carbon-14 to elucidate the so-called dark reactions of photosynthesis, for which he was awarded the 1961 Nobel Prize in chemistry. (Others who made major contributions to the understanding of photosynthesis include the physicist George Feher and the Nobel laureates James Franck, Richard Willstätter, and Otto Warburg*.)
The invention of radioimmunoassay by Rosalyn Yalow and Solomon Berson, which has revolutionized clinical and research practice in such fields as endocrinology and blood banking. The technique, which can be made exquisitely sensitive to trace amounts (nano- and pico-molar concentrations) of specific blood substances, is employed in measuring the levels of most hormones, screening donated blood for hepatitis-B virus, and in allergy and drug level testing. Yalow received the Nobel Prize in 1977 for this work. (Berson died in 1972.)
The determination of key components of the experimental basis for the double helix model of DNA by Phoebus Levene, Erwin Chargaff, and Rosalind Franklin. In 1929, Levene discovered that DNA contains a sugar called deoxyribose and that it consists of a chain of what he termed "nucleotides," units composed of the deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate group, and one of four purine or pyrimidine bases. (The purine and pyrimidine molecular base constituents of DNA were discovered by the German biochemist Albrecht Kossel+.) Levene incorrectly concluded that all four bases were present in equal proportions. Chargaff, however, showed that the four bases were, in fact, present in specific pairwise ratios ([adenine]=[thymine] =/= [guanine]=[cytosine]), implying both structural base pairing and base coding of the genetic information. Finally, Rosalind Franklin's x-ray crystallographic studies of DNA provided the clear evidence for a double helical structure. The theoretical model of Watson+ and Crick+ was largely based on the experimental data provided by the aforementioned chemical and structural analyses.
The breaking of the genetic code by Marshall Nirenberg. Nirenberg and Har Gobind Khorana+ shared the 1968 Nobel Prize for their independent determinations of the code.
The co-discovery of the basic mechanisms of gene regulation by François Jacob, Walter Gilbert, Mark Ptashne, Andrew Fire, Gary Ruvkun, Howard Cedar, Aharon Razin, Michael Grunstein, and Michael Levine. Jacob shared the 1965 Nobel Prize with Jacques Monod+ for their joint work on the development of the operon-repressor model of gene regulation, which was experimentally confirmed by Gilbert, who isolated the lac operon repressor (but whose 1980 Nobel Prize in chemistry was in recognition of other work), and by Ptashne, whose exploration of the phage lambda switch greatly elucidated the process by which regulatory proteins (repressors) switch on and off gene expression. Fire co-discovered RNA interference, an RNA-based gene control process, for which he shared a Nobel Prize in 2006. A second RNA-based gene control mechanism involving short strands of RNA called microRNA was co-discovered by Ruvkun. Cedar and Razin shared the 2008 Wolf Prize in Medicine for their role in the discovery of DNA methylation, which together with histone modification, co-discovered by Grunstein, forms the basis of the new field of epigenetics, which deals with the molecular mechanisms involved in gene activation and suppression by environmental influences. Levine's work on the organization and function of the homeobox genes (which he co-discovered) "has done for animal development what the work on the lac operon and phage lambda did for understanding gene regulation in simpler organisms."11 The discovery of these master genes and their role in development has "shattered our previous notions of animal relationships and of what made animals different, and opened up a whole new way of looking at evolution."12
The discovery of RNA and major contributions to the elucidation of its structure and function by Phoebus Levene, François Jacob, Sydney Brenner, Matthew Meselson, Sol Spiegelman, Sidney Altman, Sir Aaron Klug, Alexander Rich, Leslie Orgel, Andrew Fire, Gary Ruvkun, Roger Kornberg, Ada Yonath, and others. RNA was first identified as a nucleic acid distinct from DNA by Levene in the course of his seminal studies of the nucleic acids in the early part of the twentieth century. The concept of messenger RNA (mRNA) as an information-bearing DNA-to-ribosome intermediary in protein synthesis was first formulated by Jacob and Jacques Monod+ in 1961 and subsequently verified in experiments conducted by Brenner, Jacob, Meselson, and Spiegelman. The surprising catalytic properties of RNA were independently discovered by Altman and by Thomas Cech+, supporting the concept of a pre-biotic "RNA world," first proposed in 1963 by Rich and, independently a few years later, by Orgel and others. Definitive x-ray diffraction studies of RNA structure were first carried out independently by Klug and by Rich. Rich co-discovered double helical RNA and went on to discover the more general process of nucleic acid hybridization, whose further development would "become the technical foundation of modern molecular biology."13 Nucleic acid hybridization, e.g., lies at the heart of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which has revolutionized molecular biological research practice. Double helical RNA has recently been found to play a role in the control of gene expression in a process called RNA interference (RNAi), which was co-discovered by Fire. Another RNA control process regulating gene expression that involves very short, single-stranded RNA molecules called microRNA (miRNA) was co-discovered by Ruvkun. In recent years, sophisticated x-ray crystallographic analyses using synchrotron radiation sources were developed and employed by Kornberg to elucidate the structural dynamics of RNA-polymerase-directed DNA-to-mRNA transcription. Cryo-crystallographic and synchrotron radiation techniques were also developed and used by Ada Yonath to elucidate the structural dynamics of the process of translation, i.e., ribosomal protein synthesis, which involves mRNA, rRNA (ribosomal RNA), and tRNA (transfer RNA). These studies have revealed the ribosome to be, in fact, a very complex ribozyme (RNA enzyme). Jacob, Brenner, Altman, Klug, Fire, Kornberg, and Yonath were all awarded Nobel Prizes. Rich received the US National Medal of Science in 1995.
The co-invention of gene splicing by Stanley N. Cohen. Cohen and Herbert Boyer's+ invention opened up the new field of genetic engineering. Cohen and Boyer+ were recipients of both the US National Medal of Science and the US National Medal of Technology. The latter award cited them "for their fundamental discovery of gene splicing techniques allowing replication in quantity of biomedically important new products, and beneficially transformed plant materials. This discovery of recombinant DNA technology has transformed the basic science of molecular biology and the biotechnology industry." Other major contributors to genetic engineering include Paul Berg, Walter Gilbert, and Daniel Nathans, all of whom received Nobel Prizes for their work.
The discovery of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) by I. I. Rabi. Rabi received the 1944 Nobel Prize in physics for the demonstration of NMR in molecular beams. Felix Bloch shared the 1952 Nobel Prize in physics with Edward Purcell+ for their independent inventions of condensed matter NMR spectroscopy, which is important in biomolecular structure studies, as well as being the basis of the MRI diagnostic imaging technique.14
The invention of the flexible endoscope by Basil Hirschowitz, which has revolutionized surgery by greatly reducing the complexity and invasiveness of many surgical procedures. (This work, undertaken in the mid-1950s, led to the production of the first glass-clad optical fibers, which later revolutionized modern telecommunications.)
The co-invention of LASIK eye surgery by Samuel Blum (together with Rangaswamy Srinivasan+ and James Wynne+).
The invention of phacoemulsification cataract surgery by Charles Kelman, which is the technique most widely used for cataract removal worldwide. More than two hundred million such operations have been performed. It has revolutionized the procedure by completely eliminating the need for hospitalization, which had previously averaged one week. Kelman was a recipient of both the US National Medal of Technology in 1992 and the Lasker Award for Clinical Medical Research in 2004 (posthumously).
The invention of the cardiac defibrillator, external pacemaker, and cardiac monitor by Paul Zoll. Zoll (and, independently, Wilson Greatbatch+ ) later invented the implantable cardiac pacemaker. Michel Mirowski and Morton Mower were two of the four inventors of the automatic, implantable cardiac defibrillator.
The invention of the Heimlich Maneuver by Henry Heimlich.
The co-invention of the basic technique used worldwide for the controlled chlorination of drinking water supplies by Abel Wolman. Wolman and Linn Enslow's+ invention resulted in a dramatic reduction in the incidence of such waterborne diseases as cholera, dysentery, and typhoid fever; as such, it was arguably the single most important contribution to public health in the twentieth century. The number of lives thereby saved has been variously estimated as running into the hundreds of millions. Wolman received both the Lasker Award for Public Service in 1960 and the US National Medal of Science in 1974. The Abel Wolman Municipal Building, one of the largest buildings in Baltimore, MD (where he taught at Johns Hopkins), was named in his honor.
NOTES
1. Manasseh ben Israel, The Hope of Israel (London, 1652), reprinted in Manasseh ben Israel's Mission to Oliver Cromwell, edited by Lucien Wolf (London, 1901, pp. 50-51).
2. Winston Churchill, History of the English-Speaking Peoples, Vol. 1 (Cassell, London, 1956).
3. Frank Heynick, Jews and Medicine: An Epic Saga (KTAV, Hoboken, NJ, 2002).
4. Ibid., p. 123.
5. Ibid., pp. 124,130-131.
6. Ibid., p. 13.
7. For statistics on Vienna, see Vienna and the Jews, 1867-1938: A Cultural History, by Steven Beller (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1989, pp. 36-
37); on Berlin, see
Germany Without
Only one M in tomato.

[oldrider]

Only one M in tomato.

Observant beyond belief :lol: if akzle needs a deputy you may solicit my vote! :yes:

[pritch]

All people with motorcycles at age 60, get free zimmer frames and are exempt from carousel.



I was relieved when I read that after reading about being fourteen years overdue for gassing.

Where do I go to get the .50BMG training?

[Swoop]

axle will be allowed to beg forgiveness.

I will entertain his pleas before deciding.

[Akzle]

Original Post Updated



Environment: Emissions Trading / The RMA / Water Rights
emissions trading is horseshit - it gets shitcanned.
the RMA will be reviewed by people cleverer than me.
water is everyone's right, and everyone has the right to expect it not to be fucked on by shitheads. shampoo will be banned. microbead cosmetics will be banned. as with the "one way" everyone will be catching their own, treating their own and not polluting any shit outside their house.
same applies for industry. agricultural irrigation will only be allowed if runoff is filtered (by planting, ie) before leaving the property.


Health: Mental Health
see: all drugs legal
existing non-drug treatments wont change.


Justice: Corrections / Firearms
funny how you put justice and corrections next to each other.
initially i will be the arbiter of all.
I will likely go through existing judges and see which i feel aren't completely jew and start a pyramid thing.
any crime for which the current penalty is 10 years or more - execution.
anyone who "is a dick" or does harm to another human, or animal, will probably be shot. until we can a) clear the backlog and b) come up with something better like the swiss.
firearms will become more available (the civillians will have the opportinity to be equally as armed as the govt)
police will be removed from the equation, an independent vetting/licensing initiative developed.
we're going to shitcan the "reason for wanting one" and massively increase the education and training surrounding them, and teach people not to be ignorant hoplophobic morons about guns.
see: kalashnikovs in kindy initiative.
we may also implement something swiss-like with compulsory military service, standing army, and every home having a long gun and a short gun in.


Welfare: Superannuation
shitcanned effective now.
anyone who paid into a scheme shall be paid out accordingly, but the next generations wont need/will have to organise their own.


"Your Majesty". You little groveler !
you did actually start that.


Whereas in my case, I was simply hoping that by showing a deferential tone at this
stage, I could avoid being delegated to shoveling sh$% out of the royal stables
after he had finalised the Racing policy.

My only hope was that he had some-one far better equipped in mind for that job.
i fucking hate horses so no chance of that.


Please amend the penal code to include death for anyone posting anything longer than 3 paragraphs on a bike forum - unless it's genuine technical information...
Thanking you in advance, your majesty.
RBCIAFAGIAP
(rep, but cassina is a fuckwit and gremlin is a pussy)


Now I go to register my scooter, $560 some dollars, and they say it justified.:mad::ar15::ar15:

yeah. that shit will be free. so will licensing. because it will be to the benefit of everyone.

[Banditbandit]

But wouldnt accept my drivel, I am now Paranoid that they are out to get me!



They are out to get you ...

[mashman]

statistics show that criminals commit a lot less crime after being shot.

yeah well it's a profitable enterprise innit. so my govt might as well get a slice of the pie.
and the gangs aren't exactly supplying hospital grade shit (or quantities) now eh.
and being de-illegaled, they can continue to supply as they do.

heh... I assume you mean fatality, flawless victory.

You'll get yer cut from taxation. Stop being so fuckin' greedy.
Hospital grade lmao.

How's about solving homelessness within a year? It's easy to do. Simply ask those who work n an office that could work at home to work from home. Empty offices with all the mod cons without having to lay another brick. That should free up a few billion for ya ya greedy bastid.

[Akzle]

heh... I assume you mean fatality, flawless victory.
nz doesn't have the "hardened criminality" of, say, south africa. being shot isn't an occupational hazard. and we value life a lot more highly.
that said, no-one could be blamed for killing them. and if they're impinging someone elses right to peacable possession and free enjoyment of their lawfully held possessions... then you may impinge their right to free enjoyment of their vital organs...


You'll get yer cut from taxation. Stop being so fuckin' greedy.
Hospital grade lmao.
i'm going to phase out taxation.
also, if you can find me medical grade uncut unfucked unadulterated heroin MDMA LSD on the street then...





... i'll buy it off you.


How's about solving homelessness within a year? It's easy to do. Simply ask those who work n an office that could work at home to work from home. Empty offices with all the mod cons without having to lay another brick. That should free up a few billion for ya ya greedy bastid.

-or- kill all the homeless.

you need to look at all the possibilites man...

(also studies have shown that a) office workers are <60% useful on a good day; and b) that decreases when they can't grab each other's jock around the watercooler and talk shit about their inconsequential weekend lives with each other)

[JATZ]

-or- kill all the homeless.

you need to look at all the possibilites man...
Feed them to the hungry....



Your welcome :D

[Voltaire]

w. Saw your avatar and was a bit taken aback. One of our more interesting members used it a few years back.

You mean while I have been incarcerated, (I didnt kill them honestly) :laugh:and undergone years of rectal prodding in the showers, someone stole my AVATAR!:2guns:

I did see a brief mention of The Jewish Culture on here.

I do not subscribe to anti semanticism, anti-semitic Ideology.

My reasoning is that I have studied history, & Jewish History, and their is no doubt they are our creators, (whoever you wish to call him) chosen people.

The Jewish people make up Under 1% of the worlds population, yet their contributions to Human Kind is HUGE.

A dear and now passed on, friend and colleague, "Steve" AKA JAWS, as a young Pilot officer saw service in the last months of world war two, he was detailed to fly politicians and those accused of war crimes, he and his mates went to the camps of extermination and visited to look at the accused of these horrendous crimes, he said they looked just like you and me, He could not figure out what had gone on in their head.

When they saw the "Bitch of Bergen-Belsen" we wanted to see how ugly this bitch "Irma Grese" was and we took bets as to who amongst us would do her if able! (young guys in their late teens/early 20's).

When they were taken to see her, she was used to having visits from such as Jaws and his mates, out of human interest, she did not like it, she apparently screamed, and nutted off that the polish guard entered her cell, punched her, threw her to the ground, then kicked her with his hobbed boats in the ribs so hard they heard the crack:

He/ dear old Steve, said he still dreamt of this ugly cow and her pure hatred, it shocked and scared him and his mates, (no one did her:laugh:)

They went along to watch her Hang instead.

Have a read if you wish, I leave it to you to form your own opinion.

y Luana Goriss
Updated July 03, 2017
Considering that the Jewish people constitute a mere one-half of one percent of the world's population, Jewish contributions to religion, science, literature, music, medicine, finance, philosophy, entertainment etc., is staggering.

In the field of medicine alone, Jewish contributions are staggering and continue to be so. It was a Jew who created the first polio vaccine, who discovered insulin, who discovered that aspirin dealt with pain, who discovered chloral hydrate for convulsions, who discovered streptomycin, who discovered the origin and spread of infectious diseases, who invented the test for diagnosis of syphilis, who identified the first cancer virus, who discovered the cure for pellagra and added to the knowledge about yellow fever, typhoid, typhus, measles, diphtheria and influenza.

Today, Israel, a nation only sixty years old, has emerged at the forefront of stem-cell research, which will, in the near future, give humanity unprecedented medical treatment for degenerative diseases.

There is a passage in the Talmud that says: “We find in the case of Cain, who killed his brother, that it is written: The bloods of thy brother cry unto me: not the blood of thy brother, but the bloods of thy brother is said, that is, his blood and the blood of his potential descendants.” (Sanhedrin 37a, 37-38.)

Over the past 2,000 years in particular, millions of Jews have been killed in Inquisitions, Pogroms, and more recently, the horror of the Holocaust. One wonders how much more humanity could have gained from the descendants of those murdered and their potential contributions to mankind.

Below is a short list of some of the most important contributions Jewish individuals have made to society.

Jewish Contributions to Society
Albert Einstein Physicist
Jonas Salk Created first Polio Vaccine.
Albert Sabin Developed the oral vaccine for Polio.
Galileo Discovered the speed of light
Selman Waksman Discovered Streptomycin. Coined the word 'antibiotic'.
Gabriel Lipmann Discovered color photography.
Baruch Blumberg Discovered origin and spread of infectious diseases.
G. Edelman Discovered chemical structure of antibodies.
Briton Epstein Identified first cancer virus.
Maria Meyer Structure of atomic nuclei.
Julius Mayer Discovered law of thermodynamics.
Sigmund Freud Father of Psychotherapy.
Christopher Columbus (Marano) Discovered the Americas.
Benjamin Disraeli Prime Minister of Great Britain 1804-1881
Isaac Singer Invented the sewing machine.
Levi Strauss Largest manufacturer of Denim Jeans.
Joseph Pulitzer Established 'Pulitzer Prize' for achievements in journalism, literature, music & art.

And the remnant of Jacob shall be in the midst of many peoples, as dew from the Lord, as showers upon the grass..." MICAH 5:6*

JEWISH NOBEL PRIZE WINNERS
CHEMISTRY
ECONOMICS
LITERATURE
MEDICINE
PEACE
PHYSICS
JEWS IN ANTHROPOLOGY
JEWS IN BIOMEDICAL SCIENCE
JEWS IN CHEMISTRY
JEWS IN CHESS
JEWS IN COMPUTER & INFORMATION SCIENCE
JEWS IN ECONOMICS
JEWS IN LINGUISTICS
JEWS IN LITERATURE
JEWS IN MATHEMATICS
JEWS IN MUSIC
JEWS IN PHILOSOPHY
JEWS IN PHYSICS
JEWS IN PSYCHOLOGY
JEWS IN SOCIOLOGY
REFLECTIONS ON JUDAISM AND THE JEWS
THE WHAT, WHY, & WHO OF THIS WEBSITE

The purpose of this website is to provide an online resource that accurately describes the Jewish contribution to the cultural, scientific, and technological evolution of civilization. Although there are scores of websites currently on the Internet that purport to characterize the Jews and their impact on the world, nearly all of them are sponsored by groups whose ultimate objectives vis-à-vis the Jews range from defamation to outright elimination. Many of the classic works of the anti-Semitic canon, once confined to the fever swamps, have become widely available via these websites, a few of which actually display legal disclaimers concerning their potential for incitement to "unlawful or criminal acts." (The composer Arnold Schoenberg once asked in this connection: "What is anti-Semitism to lead to if not acts of violence? Is it so difficult to imagine that?")

JINFO.ORG has no outside organizational affiliation or sponsorship. The website is an evolving project with new sections being added periodically. Statistical metrics are extensively employed because they are the most efficient technique for objectively summarizing and conveying an overall view of the large quantities of data involved.

Concerning Jewish identity, the vast majority (over 90%) of the individuals listed here as being Jewish are such by virtue of having had two Jewish parents. Also included, however, are individuals with one Jewish parent, as well as a number of Jews-by-choice, with the listings of individuals in the latter two categories qualified as such. In adopting this criterion for inclusion, we have followed the practice employed by the Jewish encyclopedias for more than a century.

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* The passage numbered Micah 5:6 in Jewish Bibles is numbered 5:7 in Christian Bibles.
JEWS IN THE MEDICAL & LIFE SCIENCES
JINFO.ORG
Prior to presenting his appeal to Oliver Cromwell for the readmission of the Jews, who had been expelled from England in 1290, Manasseh ben Israel wrote in The Hope of Israel 1: "Hence it may be seen that God hath not left us; for if one persecutes us, another receives us civilly and courteously; and if this prince treats us ill, another treats us well; if one banisheth us out of his country, another invites us with a thousand privileges ... and do we not see that those Republiques do flourish and much increase in trade who admit the Israelites?" But it was not for their economic prowess alone that the Jews were valued, it was for a whole host of skills, not the least of which was their expertise in the medical arts.

Winston Churchill, writing of the expulsion referred to above, states: "The Jews, held up to universal hatred, were pillaged, maltreated, and finally expelled from the realm. Exception was made for certain physicians without whose skill persons of consequence might have lacked due attention."2 Indeed, more often than not, the chief court physicians of the rulers of Europe were Jews or crypto-Jews. To cite but a few examples, Frederick III of the Holy Roman Empire, Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, Elizabeth I of England, Louis XIV of France, Catherine de Medici, and Catherine the Great of Russia all at one time or another employed Jewish personal physicians.3 Nor was it only the secular rulers of Christendom that depended on Jewish medical skills. As the Spanish philosopher and theologian Ramon Lull (Raymond Lully) complained in the thirteenth century: "Jews are universally entrusted by the great with the care of their health. Nor is the Church free from this abomination, for nearly every monastery has its Jewish physician."4 Among the many Popes who maintained Jewish personal physicians were Martin IV, Nicholas IV, Boniface VIII, Alexander VI, Julius II, Leo X, Clement VII, Paul III, Gregory XV, Urban VIII, and Innocent X.5

Much the same situation prevailed in Dar al-Islam, where, e.g., Maimonides served as court physician to Saladin the Great's Vizier Al-Fadhil and later to Saladin's son and successor. Jews also figured prominently as translators and transmitters to the Moslem world of the medical scholarship of the ancient Greeks, and would later play a similar role in transmitting to Europe the scholarship of Moslem physicians such as Avicenna. In the late Middle Ages, the Jews, numbering only about 1% of Europe's population, constituted roughly half of its physicians.6 During the last of the great European Jewish expulsions in the 1930s, the medical centers of Vienna and Berlin lost nearly half of their physicians and the majority of their medical school faculties.7 Many fled to America, helping to fuel its meteoric rise to preeminence in biomedical research; Jews have accounted for some 40% of US Nobel Prizes in medicine and constitute over one-third of the combined membership of the life sciences divisions of the US National Academy of Sciences and its affiliated Institute of Medicine.

The following links contain lists of prominent Jewish scientists and recipients of major international awards in the biomedical field. The last link below contains an analysis showing that of all the lives saved by all the scientific and medical advances in human history, more than three-fourths of those lives were saved by advances for which Jews constituted fifty percent or more of the principal developers.
Jewish Biomedical & Life Scientists
Jewish Recipients of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (27% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the Lasker Award in Basic Medical Research (32% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the Gairdner Foundation Awards (26% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the Wolf Prize in Medicine (41% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize (43% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the GM Cancer Research Foundation Sloan Prize (38% of recipients)
Jews Among the Creators of History's Greatest Lifesaving Medical & Scientific Advances (estimated 2.8 billion lives saved)
Some of the more notable Jewish contributions to the medical and biological sciences in the modern era are listed below. (The names of non-Jewish scientists mentioned in the accompanying discussion have been denoted with the superscript "+" in order to avoid confusion.)

The invention of local anesthesia by Carl Koller and the discovery of Novocaine by Alfred Einhorn.
The discovery that pancreatic dysfunction is the cause of diabetes by Oskar Minkowski (together with Joseph von Mering+) and the subsequent discovery that this dysfunction involves a deficiency in the hormonal secretions of the islets of Langerhans by Moses Barron. The work of the Canadian team that isolated insulin (Banting+, Best+, Collip+, and Macleod+) was based on these two prior discoveries.
The discovery of the ABO and other human blood groups and of the Rh factor by Karl Landsteiner. (The M, N, and P blood groups were co-discovered with Philip Levine and the Rh factor was co-discovered with Alexander Wiener). Landsteiner received the 1930 Nobel Prize for this work, which made safe blood transfusions possible for the first time. Landsteiner is also considered to be one of the giants of immunology, having made major contributions to the understanding of the chemical basis of antigen-antibody Jews, by Bernt Engelmann (Bantam, New York, 1984, pp. 59-60).
8. Billy Woodward et al., Scientists Greater than Einstein: The Biggest Lifesavers of the Twentieth Century (Linden, Chicago, 2009, pp. 315, 321).
9. Heynick, Jews and Medicine: An Epic Saga, p.461.
10. See http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1119266.
11. See profile of Michael S. Levine by Karen Hopkin in The Scientist (Vol. 21, No. 3, 2007, p. 58).
12. Endless Forms Most Beautiful: The New Science of Evo Devo, by Sean Carroll (W.W. Norton, New York, 2005, p. 9).
13. See Discovering the RNA Double Helix and Hybridization, by Alexander Varshavsky in Cell (Vol. 127, 29 December 2006, pp. 1295-1297).
14. The image reconstruction algorithm employed in all tomographic imaging is based on the Radon transform, which was invented by the Austrian mathematician Johann Radon+ in 1917. In his paper, Radon+ states that his result is based on the prior work of Hermann Minkowski and Paul Funk. Minkowski was the younger brother of the above-mentioned physiologist Oskar Minkowski. Paul Funk was a Czech-Jewish mathematician who survived internment in the Nazi concentration camp at Terezín (Theresienstadt). Gábor Frank obtained the first patents for x-ray tomographic scanning (1938 patents in both Hungary and Germany). Unlike Funk, he did not return from the camps. See Made in Hungary, by Andrew Simon (Simon Publications, Safety Harbor, FL, 1999, p. 266).
A Brief History
On June 19, 1269, the King of France, Louis IX, ordered that any Jew found in any public place not wearing the obligatory yellow badge would be fined 10 livres of silver. (Note: The livre was the monetary unit in France before 1795 when they came up with the franc. The word stems from the Latin word for “pound” and the original livre in 781 CE was 1 pound of silver.) People of Jewish faith or lineage have suffered discrimination and worse for many centuries. Meanwhile, many Jewish scientists, composers, educators, and artists of all types among others have enriched mankind. For example, 3 of the 7 justices on the US Supreme Court are Jewish. (Some of the inventions of Jews; safety razor, printed circuit board, cell phone, transistor, computer mouse, defibrillator, Esperanto, video tape, the Corvette, and the cotton swab.) Here we list 10 of the greatest contributions of people of Jewish background to the United States and the World. Who else would you include? (Note: The arbitrary order listed does not denote relative value of the contribution.)

Digging Deeper
10. Julius Fromm, Latex Condom.


With the loosening of sexual inhibitions after the prudish Victorian age, people obviously needed protection against unwanted pregnancy and disease. Condoms then were made of natural “skin” substances (animal intestines) and of rubber. The rubber condoms were made by wrapping layers of rubber around a mold and then cooking it. Fromm invented a way to make the latex liquid and manufacture the condoms by dipping a mold into the liquid. His invention was made in 1916, and the thinner, cheaper condom was a big success throughout Europe. He also invented the condom vending machine in 1928, leading to the gas station bathroom graffiti, “Don’t buy this gum, it tastes like rubber!”

9. Ruth Handler, Barbie Doll.


Ranking close to the Teddy Bear in the hearts of American children, Barbie has kept girls company since 1959. Handler and her husband were co-founders of Mattel (with Harold Matson) and were manufacturing plastic items such as picture frames when Ruth got the inspiration for Barbie from their daughter, Barbara. The invention of Barbie has made millions of little girls happy and millions of parents wondering where their money went when Barbie “needed” all those accessories.

8. Morris Michtom, Teddy Bear.


Taking inspiration from a cartoon of President Teddy Roosevelt showing a little bear mercy while hunting, Morris and his wife Rose created the Teddy Bear and turned it into an American icon. Cracked fact: Their daughter appeared in 40+ episodes of the television show, Get Smart as a background character.

7. Benjamin Disraeli, British Statesman.


Although born a Sephardic Jew, Disraeli’s father had his family switch to Anglican when Ben was 12, obviously to blend in to British society. (Anglican is the state religion of the United Kingdom.) Disraeli went on to a distinguished career in British politics, serving as Prime Minister and as Chancellor of the Exchequer, as well as a Conservative member of Parliament.

6. Laszlo Biro, Ball Point Pen.


Just think, before 1944 when this Hungarian Jew invented the ball point pen, there were no copy machines and the use of carbon paper to make handwritten copies must have been horrendous with a fountain pen. Smudge free writing and many times less likely to cause a laundry disaster than a fountain pen. Thanks Laszlo!

5. Claude Levi-Strauss, Anthropology.


No he did not invent blue jeans (probably wishes he did!). Claude is called the Father of Modern Anthropology for his work concerning structuralism and structural anthropology. He also studied mythology and applied his structuralist approach to that field. President of France (at the time) Nicolas Sarkozy called him “The greatest ethnologist of our time.” upon his death at age 100 in 2009. Born in Belgium, Levi-Strauss spent most of his life in France.

4. J. Robert Oppenheimer and Edward Teller, Nuclear Physics.


Whether you think nuclear weapons are a good thing or not, Oppenheimer is considered the Father of the Atomic Bomb and Teller is considered the Father of the Hydrogen Bomb. Both were born into Jewish families and both worked in the United States, although Teller was born in Hungary. The fact that these scientists enabled the US to be the first to get nuclear weapons may well have prevented a catastrophe for the Western world had the Soviets or Chinese gotten such weapons first.

3. Sanford “Sandy” Koufax, Baseball.


Born Sanford Braun, Koufax played only 11 years of big league baseball, but what spectacular years they were. He pitched 4 no hitters, struck out 2396 batters and had a career ERA of 2.76. Along with Nolan Ryan, Koufax is one of only two pitchers in the Hall of Fame that struck out more batters than innings they pitched. Amazing fact: In Koufax’s last year (1966) he was 27-9 with a 1.73 ERA! His salary for that fantastic season; a career high $125,000. Koufax famously refused to pitch a World Series game on Yom Kippur, a Jewish holy day.

2. Sigmund Schlomo Freud, Psychoanalysis.


This Austrian Jew is the Father of Psychoanalysis and as such greatly influenced those psychiatrists that came after him. His research and thinking is some of the most influential and insightful delving into the human mind of all time. Cracked fact: Freud thought that the fear of castration among males is provoked by uncircumcised boys seeing boys that are circumcised and as such this constitutes the root of anti-Semitism. Additionally, Freud thought that belief in God is an “illusion” and basically exists to calm man’s fear of “nature” and death.

1. Albert Einstein, Science.


Among other things, Einstein is most famous for his Special and General Theories of Relativity, and for his equation, E= MC2². Often referred to as the smartest man in history, Einstein was in the United States when Hitler and the Nazis took power in Germany where Einstein had been working as a professor in Berlin. Einstein chose to stay in the US as he rightly figured going back to Germany was suicidal. Fun facts: No one knows what Einstein’s last words were because he spoke them in German and no German speaking person was present. Recently discovered correspondence indicates that Einstein was probably an atheist, although he never said so publicly.

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What the Jewish people have done militarily for their tiny nation, has the respect of their allies , and their enemies alike.

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The development of the sodium citrate blood storage technique by Richard Lewisohn. Prior to Lewisohn's work in 1913, blood could not be stored and had to be transfused directly between donor and recipient. The use of sodium citrate as an anticoagulant, together with the use of refrigeration (introduced by Richard Weil), permitted creation of the first blood banks. Lewisohn and Karl Landsteiner (see above) are considered to be the two researchers most responsible for the invention of modern blood transfusion, which is estimated to have saved in excess of one billion lives since the 1950s alone, making it the single greatest lifesaving medical advance in history.8
The introduction of the side-chain theory of antibody formation by Paul Ehrlich, which has evolved into clonal selection theory, the central paradigm of modern immunology. Ehrlich shared the 1908 Nobel Prize with Élie Metchnikoff* for their independent contributions to immunology. Ehrlich is also considered to be the founder of modern chemotherapeutic medicine. His development of Salvarsan (1909) and Neosalvarsan (1911) constituted the first effective treatment for syphilis and, in the words of Sir Alexander Fleming+, "the beginning - and a magnificent beginning - of bacterial chemotherapy." 9
The isolation and development of penicillin by Sir Ernst Chain. Chain shared the 1945 Nobel Prize for this work with Sir Alexander Fleming+ and Sir Howard Florey+. It was Chain who recognized the potential of Fleming's+ nearly forgotten discovery of the antibacterial properties of Penicillium molds (one of many agents then known to have such properties). Chain, a biochemist, was able to isolate the active antibacterial substance, viz., penicillin, and to work out its molecular structure (later confirmed in the Nobel-Prize-winning x-ray diffraction work of Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin+). Using samples that Chain produced, Chain and Florey+ demonstrated penicillin's stability, nontoxicity, and effectiveness against staphylococcal, streptococcal, and clostridial infections in laboratory animals and humans.
The development of streptomycin by Selman Waksman and Albert Schatz. Waksman received the 1952 Nobel Prize for this work, which created the first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis, for which (in combination with other drugs) it remains a therapeutic mainstay.
The development of isoniazid by Herbert Fox and Harry Yale. Although isoniazid, the leading drug used in the treatment of tuberculosis since the mid-1950s, was first synthesized in 1912 by Josef Mally+ and Hans Leopold Meyer (who later died in the Nazi concentration camp at Terezín), its anti-tubercular properties were not discovered until the early 1950s, when it was independently re-synthesized and clinically explored by three separate groups. These were headed, respectively, by Fox at Hoffmann-La Roche, Yale at Squibb, and Gerhard Domagk+ at Bayer. Isoniazid, used early on in combination with streptomycin and a third drug, para-amino salicylic acid (PAS), and more recently in combination with other drugs, has saved over a hundred million lives since the 1950s. (PAS was developed by Jörgen Lehmann+ in Denmark, based on studies carried out by Frederick Bernheim in the US. In these studies, Bernheim established the metabolic role of salicylic acid in the tubercle bacillus. PAS is basically designed to interfere with these salicylate-dependant metabolic processes, ultimately impairing or killing the bacillus.) In a related, but separate development, iproniazid, an isoniazid derivative first synthesized by Fox in 1951 as a potential anti-tubercular agent, was found to have powerful anti-depressant effects. It subsequently became the basis for the MAOIs (mono-amine oxidase inhibitors) that revolutionized the treatment of clinical depression in the post-war period.
The isolation of cortisone by Tadeus Reichstein. Reichstein shared the 1950 Nobel Prize with Edward Kendall+ and Philip Hench+. Reichstein and Kendall+ were recognized for having independently isolated and characterized the hormones of the adrenal cortex, the most important of which was cortisone.
The chemical synthesis of cortisone by Lewis Sarett*, Max Tishler, and Carl Djerassi. Sarett, working under Tishler at Merck, achieved the first chemical synthesis of the compound. With subsequent improvements by Tishler, Sarett's synthesis made cortisone a commercially available drug for the first time. Further advances achieved independently by Djerassi and by Percy Julian+ made economically viable, large-scale production possible. Sarett, Tishler, and Djerassi were all awarded US National Medals of Science (in 1975, 1987, and 1973, respectively).
The development of aspirin by Arthur Eichengrun and Felix Hoffmann+. Aspirin is an artificially modified form of salicylic acid, a naturally occurring substance that can be obtained from the bark of willow trees, whose analgesic properties have been known since antiquity. Salicylic acid is, however, very poorly tolerated by the digestive system, which greatly limits its medicinal value. Early attempts to reduce its toxicity through acetylation failed to yield acetylsalicylic acid of sufficient purity to be medicinally useful. The first successful synthesis of pure acetylsalicylic acid was achieved in 1897 by Felix Hoffmann+, working at F. Bayer & Co. in Germany. Recently developed evidence indicates, however, that credit for this development should have gone equally, or even predominantly, to Hoffmann's+ Jewish supervisor, Arthur Eichengrun.10
The discovery of prostaglandins by M. W. Goldblatt. (Also discovered independently by Ulf von Euler+.) Sir John Vane* was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1982 for demonstrating that the anti-inflammatory and analgesic action of aspirin-like drugs was via their inhibition of prostaglandin production. Vane also discovered the vasodilator prostacyclin, which led directly to the development of the ACE inhibitors that are widely used in the treatment of hypertension, heart failure, and other vascular diseases. The development of the COX-2 selective inhibitors (such as the "super-aspirin" Celebrex, widely used by severe arthritis sufferers) was largely the work of Philip Needleman.
The discovery of neurotransmitters by Otto Loewi. Loewi shared the 1936 Nobel Prize with Sir Henry Dale+ for their independent work on acetylcholine. Sir Bernard Katz and Julius Axelrod shared the 1970 Nobel Prize with Ulf von Euler+ for advanced work on neurotransmitters. Their work led directly to the development of the class of anti-depressants that includes Prozac, Zoloft, and Paxil. Axelrod, together with Bernard Brodie, Leon Greenberg, and David Lester, was largely responsible for the development of the pain reliever acetaminophen (Tylenol).
The discovery of endorphins and enkephalins by Solomon Snyder and Hans Kosterlitz, respectively. The discovery by Snyder of the opioid receptors in the mammalian nervous system led to the further discovery of endorphins and enkephalins, endogenous opioids that help to control mood and pain. The opioid receptors play a large role in the action of pain killers such as morphine. This new understanding of opioid action has in turn led to the development of synthetic pain killing substitutes with diminished potential for addiction. Snyder and Kosterlitz shared the 1978 Lasker Award in Basic Medical Research for this work.
The discovery and characterization of growth factors by Rita Levi-Montalcini, Viktor Hamburger, and Stanley H. Cohen. Levi-Montalcini and Cohen shared the 1986 Nobel Prize for their identification and isolation of the nerve and epidermal growth factors, respectively. Growth factors (others of which were subsequently discovered) are protein molecular "signals" emitted by cells to control growth and differentiation in neighboring cells. Cohen also elucidated the biochemical pathways through which growth factors act after binding to receptors on the outer membranes of target cells. Growth factors play a large role in embryonic development and are thought to have potential medical application in nerve regeneration, accelerated wound healing, and in the understanding and control of tumor cell proliferation. The "blockbuster" drug Herceptin for treating breast and other cancers is based, in part, on Cohen's epidermal growth factor research.
The development of Warfarin (Coumadin) anticoagulant therapy by Shepard Shapiro. Warfarin is the most commonly used anticoagulant for the prevention of heart attacks and strokes. It is also one of the most widely prescribed medications in the world. It was discovered in 1946 by Karl Paul Link+, who developed it as a rat poison. Its identification and development for use in human anticoagulant therapy resulted from the work of Shapiro in the early 1950s. Previously, in the early 1940s, Shapiro had pioneered the clinical use of the anti-clotting agent methylene dicoumarin (dicoumarol), which was also discovered by Link+.
The development of oral contraceptives by Gregory Pincus, Carl Djerassi, and Frank Colton.
The development of the Salk and Sabin polio vaccines by Jonas Salk and Albert Sabin, respectively. The resulting worldwide near-eradication of polio is estimated to be preventing over one-half million new cases of lifelong paralysis each year. The discovery that the causative agent in polio was, in fact, a virus was made in 1908 by Karl Landsteiner and Erwin Popper.
The development of the hepatitis-B vaccine by Baruch Blumberg and Irving Millman. Blumberg received the 1976 Nobel Prize, in part for this work, which has saved an estimated six-to-seven million lives.
The co-discovery of interferon by Alick Isaacs (in collaboration with Jean Lindenmann+). The large-scale production of recombinant interferon for medical use (a market currently in excess of $15 billion annually) is based largely on the work of Charles Weissmann and Sidney Pestka. Pestka received the US National Medal of Technology in 2001. Interferons are widely used in the treatment of multiple sclerosis, leukemias and lymphomas, melanomas, and hepatitis B and C.
The co-invention of monoclonal antibodies by César Milstein. Milstein shared the 1984 Nobel Prize with Georges Köhler+ for this work. Four of the top ten "blockbuster" anti-cancer drugs, including the top three, are now based on monoclonal antibody technology. The development of all four drugs was based on the application of this research to other research conducted by Jewish scientists. Specifically, Rituxan is based on the non-Hodgkin's lymphoma research of Ronald Levy; Avastin is based on the angiogenesis research pioneered by Judah Folkman; Herceptin is based on the the epidermal growth factor research of Stanley H. Cohen and the HER-2/neu protein research of Robert Weinberg, Jeffrey Drebin, and Mark Greene; and Erbitux is based on research by Michael Sela and John Mendelsohn. The combined annual sales of these four drugs are in excess of $20 billion. (Of the remaining six "small molecule" drugs among the top ten blockbuster anti-cancer agents, at least two are based on the research of Jewish scientists. Specifically, Velcade is based on work by Julian Adams, Avram Hershko, Alexander Varshavsky, Aaron Ciechanover, and Irwin Rose; and Gleevec is based, in part, on the research of Brian Druker.)
The invention of cancer chemotherapy by Louis Goodman, Alfred Gilman, and Sidney Farber. In the early 1940s, Goodman and Gilman discovered the effectiveness of mechlorethamine ("nitrogen mustard") in the treatment of lymphatic malignancies. In the late 1940s, Farber produced the first chemically induced remissions from leukemia using the folic acid inhibitors aminopterin and methotrexate. Eventually mechlorethamine and methotrexate, used in combination with other anti-cancer agents (mechlorethamine is the "M" in MOPP) and radiation, would lead to cures for many previously fatal lymphomas and leukemias, respectively.
The co-development of 6-MP (6-mercaptopurine) by Gertrude Elion, which used in combination with methotrexate and other drugs, has led to cures for most forms of childhood leukemia. Elion was also the co-developer of azathioprine (Imuran), the immunosuppressant that made organ transplants possible between individuals other than identical twins, and of acyclovir (Zovirax) for the treatment of herpes viral infections. Elion and George Hitchings+ received the 1988 Nobel Prize for their joint work.
The discovery and development of cisplatin by Barnett Rosenberg, which has led to a complete reversal in the prognosis for testicular cancer, a malignancy that had almost always been fatal and is now roughly 90% curable. The chemotherapeutic protocols for the use of cisplatin in the treatment and cure of testicular cancer were developed by Lawrence Einhorn (who supervised the successful treatment of Tour de France champion Lance Armstrong+).
The revolutionizing of radiation oncology by Henry Kaplan. Kaplan, the long-time head of radiology at Stanford Medical School, introduced the use of megavolt x-ray therapy in the 1950s, using linear accelerators (LINACs) to generate the required high-energy radiation. The medical LINAC is now the primary tool used in radiation oncology worldwide. Since the 1950s, an estimated forty million cancer patients have received such radiation treatments. (Currently about half of all cancer patients receive radiotherapy, primarily from LINAC-generated x-rays.) Even more significantly, Kaplan and his associates demonstrated that radiotherapy could be employed as a curative, rather than a merely palliative, cancer treatment. By the late 1970s, using radiotherapy protocols largely developed by Kaplan and his group, cure rates of 70%-80% were being achieved in patients with early-stage Hodgkin's lymphoma, which had previously been a uniformly fatal disease. Kaplan and Saul Rosenberg were the first to apply chemotherapy as an adjunct to radiation therapy in Hodgkin's disease, their regimens achieving initial cure rates in the late 1970s of 30%-40% in late-stage Hodgkin's disease. (With subsequent dramatic improvements in chemotherapy, the primary and secondary roles of radiation and chemotherapy have been reversed; cure rates are now 98% in early-stage Hodgkin's disease and 85% in advanced disease.) Kaplan and his associates were also responsible for the clinical trial studies that established the utility of the histopathologic classification scheme for non-Hodgkin's lymphomas proposed by Henry Rappaport in 1956. Although not widely accepted at the time, the Rappaport classification (with subsequent modifications) has become the most widely used in the staging and treatment of non-Hodgkin's lymphomas. For his pioneering work in radiation oncology, Kaplan became in 1969 the only biomedical scientist to be awarded the prestigious Atoms for Peace Award.
The co-discovery of oncogenes by Harold Varmus and the elucidation of their role in human cancer by Robert Weinberg, Michael Wigler, Bert Vogelstein, Arnold Levine, and others. Varmus shared the 1989 Nobel Prize with Michael Bishop+ for this work.
The discovery of retroviruses and their associated reverse transcriptase enzyme by David Baltimore and Howard Temin. Baltimore and Temin shared the 1975 Nobel Prize for their independent discovery of these viruses, which are implicated in AIDS and in some cancers, and whose existence disproved the "central dogma" of molecular biology.
The development of AZT, protease inhibitors, and other drugs used in the treatment of AIDS by Jerome Horwitz, Samuel Broder, and Irving Sigal. AZT (Retrovir), which was originally synthesized by Horwitz for use as an anti-cancer agent, proved to be the first of the reverse transcriptase inhibitors found effective against HIV. Its identification as such in clinical trials was largely the result of efforts led by Broder, who also co-developed two other reverse transcriptase inhibitors (ddl and ddC). Sigal, who was senior director of molecular biology at Merck prior to his death in the 1988 bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland, was the first to demonstrate the effectiveness of protease inhibitors against HIV. Used in combination, the various reverse transcriptase and protease inhibitors have dramatically improved the outlook for AIDS patients.
The elucidation of the biochemistry of cellular metabolism by Otto Warburg*, Otto Meyerhof, Gustav Embden, Jacob Parnas, Sir Hans Krebs, Fritz Lipmann, Herman Kalckar, Carl Neuberg, Gerty Cori, Konrad Bloch, and others. This includes much of the basic work on glycolysis (Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway), the urea and citric acid cycles (Krebs cycles), the pentose phosphate pathway, and oxidative phosphorylation and the role of ATP, as well as significant contributions to the characterization of glycogen and fatty acid metabolism. Warburg, Meyerhof, Krebs, Lipmann, Cori, and Bloch all received Nobel Prizes.
The invention of radioisotopic tracer techniques by George de Hevesy, Friedrich Paneth, Rudolf Schoenheimer, David Rittenberg, Martin Kamen, William Hassid, and Samuel Ruben. Hevesy and Paneth introduced the general technique, for which Hevesy won the 1943 Nobel Prize in chemistry; Kamen and Ruben discovered the long-lived carbon-14 radioisotope, which has had widespread application in biology (and is also the basis of radiocarbon dating). Melvin Calvin employed carbon-14 to elucidate the so-called dark reactions of photosynthesis, for which he was awarded the 1961 Nobel Prize in chemistry. (Others who made major contributions to the understanding of photosynthesis include the physicist George Feher and the Nobel laureates James Franck, Richard Willstätter, and Otto Warburg*.)
The invention of radioimmunoassay by Rosalyn Yalow and Solomon Berson, which has revolutionized clinical and research practice in such fields as endocrinology and blood banking. The technique, which can be made exquisitely sensitive to trace amounts (nano- and pico-molar concentrations) of specific blood substances, is employed in measuring the levels of most hormones, screening donated blood for hepatitis-B virus, and in allergy and drug level testing. Yalow received the Nobel Prize in 1977 for this work. (Berson died in 1972.)
The determination of key components of the experimental basis for the double helix model of DNA by Phoebus Levene, Erwin Chargaff, and Rosalind Franklin. In 1929, Levene discovered that DNA contains a sugar called deoxyribose and that it consists of a chain of what he termed "nucleotides," units composed of the deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate group, and one of four purine or pyrimidine bases. (The purine and pyrimidine molecular base constituents of DNA were discovered by the German biochemist Albrecht Kossel+.) Levene incorrectly concluded that all four bases were present in equal proportions. Chargaff, however, showed that the four bases were, in fact, present in specific pairwise ratios ([adenine]=[thymine] =/= [guanine]=[cytosine]), implying both structural base pairing and base coding of the genetic information. Finally, Rosalind Franklin's x-ray crystallographic studies of DNA provided the clear evidence for a double helical structure. The theoretical model of Watson+ and Crick+ was largely based on the experimental data provided by the aforementioned chemical and structural analyses.
The breaking of the genetic code by Marshall Nirenberg. Nirenberg and Har Gobind Khorana+ shared the 1968 Nobel Prize for their independent determinations of the code.
The co-discovery of the basic mechanisms of gene regulation by François Jacob, Walter Gilbert, Mark Ptashne, Andrew Fire, Gary Ruvkun, Howard Cedar, Aharon Razin, Michael Grunstein, and Michael Levine. Jacob shared the 1965 Nobel Prize with Jacques Monod+ for their joint work on the development of the operon-repressor model of gene regulation, which was experimentally confirmed by Gilbert, who isolated the lac operon repressor (but whose 1980 Nobel Prize in chemistry was in recognition of other work), and by Ptashne, whose exploration of the phage lambda switch greatly elucidated the process by which regulatory proteins (repressors) switch on and off gene expression. Fire co-discovered RNA interference, an RNA-based gene control process, for which he shared a Nobel Prize in 2006. A second RNA-based gene control mechanism involving short strands of RNA called microRNA was co-discovered by Ruvkun. Cedar and Razin shared the 2008 Wolf Prize in Medicine for their role in the discovery of DNA methylation, which together with histone modification, co-discovered by Grunstein, forms the basis of the new field of epigenetics, which deals with the molecular mechanisms involved in gene activation and suppression by environmental influences. Levine's work on the organization and function of the homeobox genes (which he co-discovered) "has done for animal development what the work on the lac operon and phage lambda did for understanding gene regulation in simpler organisms."11 The discovery of these master genes and their role in development has "shattered our previous notions of animal relationships and of what made animals different, and opened up a whole new way of looking at evolution."12
The discovery of RNA and major contributions to the elucidation of its structure and function by Phoebus Levene, François Jacob, Sydney Brenner, Matthew Meselson, Sol Spiegelman, Sidney Altman, Sir Aaron Klug, Alexander Rich, Leslie Orgel, Andrew Fire, Gary Ruvkun, Roger Kornberg, Ada Yonath, and others. RNA was first identified as a nucleic acid distinct from DNA by Levene in the course of his seminal studies of the nucleic acids in the early part of the twentieth century. The concept of messenger RNA (mRNA) as an information-bearing DNA-to-ribosome intermediary in protein synthesis was first formulated by Jacob and Jacques Monod+ in 1961 and subsequently verified in experiments conducted by Brenner, Jacob, Meselson, and Spiegelman. The surprising catalytic properties of RNA were independently discovered by Altman and by Thomas Cech+, supporting the concept of a pre-biotic "RNA world," first proposed in 1963 by Rich and, independently a few years later, by Orgel and others. Definitive x-ray diffraction studies of RNA structure were first carried out independently by Klug and by Rich. Rich co-discovered double helical RNA and went on to discover the more general process of nucleic acid hybridization, whose further development would "become the technical foundation of modern molecular biology."13 Nucleic acid hybridization, e.g., lies at the heart of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which has revolutionized molecular biological research practice. Double helical RNA has recently been found to play a role in the control of gene expression in a process called RNA interference (RNAi), which was co-discovered by Fire. Another RNA control process regulating gene expression that involves very short, single-stranded RNA molecules called microRNA (miRNA) was co-discovered by Ruvkun. In recent years, sophisticated x-ray crystallographic analyses using synchrotron radiation sources were developed and employed by Kornberg to elucidate the structural dynamics of RNA-polymerase-directed DNA-to-mRNA transcription. Cryo-crystallographic and synchrotron radiation techniques were also developed and used by Ada Yonath to elucidate the structural dynamics of the process of translation, i.e., ribosomal protein synthesis, which involves mRNA, rRNA (ribosomal RNA), and tRNA (transfer RNA). These studies have revealed the ribosome to be, in fact, a very complex ribozyme (RNA enzyme). Jacob, Brenner, Altman, Klug, Fire, Kornberg, and Yonath were all awarded Nobel Prizes. Rich received the US National Medal of Science in 1995.
The co-invention of gene splicing by Stanley N. Cohen. Cohen and Herbert Boyer's+ invention opened up the new field of genetic engineering. Cohen and Boyer+ were recipients of both the US National Medal of Science and the US National Medal of Technology. The latter award cited them "for their fundamental discovery of gene splicing techniques allowing replication in quantity of biomedically important new products, and beneficially transformed plant materials. This discovery of recombinant DNA technology has transformed the basic science of molecular biology and the biotechnology industry." Other major contributors to genetic engineering include Paul Berg, Walter Gilbert, and Daniel Nathans, all of whom received Nobel Prizes for their work.
The discovery of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) by I. I. Rabi. Rabi received the 1944 Nobel Prize in physics for the demonstration of NMR in molecular beams. Felix Bloch shared the 1952 Nobel Prize in physics with Edward Purcell+ for their independent inventions of condensed matter NMR spectroscopy, which is important in biomolecular structure studies, as well as being the basis of the MRI diagnostic imaging technique.14
The invention of the flexible endoscope by Basil Hirschowitz, which has revolutionized surgery by greatly reducing the complexity and invasiveness of many surgical procedures. (This work, undertaken in the mid-1950s, led to the production of the first glass-clad optical fibers, which later revolutionized modern telecommunications.)
The co-invention of LASIK eye surgery by Samuel Blum (together with Rangaswamy Srinivasan+ and James Wynne+).
The invention of phacoemulsification cataract surgery by Charles Kelman, which is the technique most widely used for cataract removal worldwide. More than two hundred million such operations have been performed. It has revolutionized the procedure by completely eliminating the need for hospitalization, which had previously averaged one week. Kelman was a recipient of both the US National Medal of Technology in 1992 and the Lasker Award for Clinical Medical Research in 2004 (posthumously).
The invention of the cardiac defibrillator, external pacemaker, and cardiac monitor by Paul Zoll. Zoll (and, independently, Wilson Greatbatch+ ) later invented the implantable cardiac pacemaker. Michel Mirowski and Morton Mower were two of the four inventors of the automatic, implantable cardiac defibrillator.
The invention of the Heimlich Maneuver by Henry Heimlich.
The co-invention of the basic technique used worldwide for the controlled chlorination of drinking water supplies by Abel Wolman. Wolman and Linn Enslow's+ invention resulted in a dramatic reduction in the incidence of such waterborne diseases as cholera, dysentery, and typhoid fever; as such, it was arguably the single most important contribution to public health in the twentieth century. The number of lives thereby saved has been variously estimated as running into the hundreds of millions. Wolman received both the Lasker Award for Public Service in 1960 and the US National Medal of Science in 1974. The Abel Wolman Municipal Building, one of the largest buildings in Baltimore, MD (where he taught at Johns Hopkins), was named in his honor.
NOTES
1. Manasseh ben Israel, The Hope of Israel (London, 1652), reprinted in Manasseh ben Israel's Mission to Oliver Cromwell, edited by Lucien Wolf (London, 1901, pp. 50-51).
2. Winston Churchill, History of the English-Speaking Peoples, Vol. 1 (Cassell, London, 1956).
3. Frank Heynick, Jews and Medicine: An Epic Saga (KTAV, Hoboken, NJ, 2002).
4. Ibid., p. 123.
5. Ibid., pp. 124,130-131.
6. Ibid., p. 13.
7. For statistics on Vienna, see Vienna and the Jews, 1867-1938: A Cultural History, by Steven Beller (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1989, pp. 36-
37); on Berlin, see
Germany Without[/QUOTE]

Wow.

[Voltaire]

w. Saw your avatar and was a bit taken aback. One of our more interesting members used it a few years back.

You mean while I have been incarcerated, (I didnt kill them honestly) :laugh:and undergone years of rectal prodding in the showers, someone stole my AVATAR!:2guns:

I did see a brief mention of The Jewish Culture on here.

I do not subscribe to anti semanticism, anti-semitic Ideology.

My reasoning is that I have studied history, & Jewish History, and their is no doubt they are our creators, (whoever you wish to call him) chosen people.

The Jewish people make up Under 1% of the worlds population, yet their contributions to Human Kind is HUGE.

A dear and now passed on, friend and colleague, "Steve" AKA JAWS, as a young Pilot officer saw service in the last months of world war two, he was detailed to fly politicians and those accused of war crimes, he and his mates went to the camps of extermination and visited to look at the accused of these horrendous crimes, he said they looked just like you and me, He could not figure out what had gone on in their head.

When they saw the "Bitch of Bergen-Belsen" we wanted to see how ugly this bitch "Irma Grese" was and we took bets as to who amongst us would do her if able! (young guys in their late teens/early 20's).

When they were taken to see her, she was used to having visits from such as Jaws and his mates, out of human interest, she did not like it, she apparently screamed, and nutted off that the polish guard entered her cell, punched her, threw her to the ground, then kicked her with his hobbed boats in the ribs so hard they heard the crack:

He/ dear old Steve, said he still dreamt of this ugly cow and her pure hatred, it shocked and scared him and his mates, (no one did her:laugh:)

They went along to watch her Hang instead.

Have a read if you wish, I leave it to you to form your own opinion.

y Luana Goriss
Updated July 03, 2017
Considering that the Jewish people constitute a mere one-half of one percent of the world's population, Jewish contributions to religion, science, literature, music, medicine, finance, philosophy, entertainment etc., is staggering.

In the field of medicine alone, Jewish contributions are staggering and continue to be so. It was a Jew who created the first polio vaccine, who discovered insulin, who discovered that aspirin dealt with pain, who discovered chloral hydrate for convulsions, who discovered streptomycin, who discovered the origin and spread of infectious diseases, who invented the test for diagnosis of syphilis, who identified the first cancer virus, who discovered the cure for pellagra and added to the knowledge about yellow fever, typhoid, typhus, measles, diphtheria and influenza.

Today, Israel, a nation only sixty years old, has emerged at the forefront of stem-cell research, which will, in the near future, give humanity unprecedented medical treatment for degenerative diseases.

There is a passage in the Talmud that says: “We find in the case of Cain, who killed his brother, that it is written: The bloods of thy brother cry unto me: not the blood of thy brother, but the bloods of thy brother is said, that is, his blood and the blood of his potential descendants.” (Sanhedrin 37a, 37-38.)

Over the past 2,000 years in particular, millions of Jews have been killed in Inquisitions, Pogroms, and more recently, the horror of the Holocaust. One wonders how much more humanity could have gained from the descendants of those murdered and their potential contributions to mankind.

Below is a short list of some of the most important contributions Jewish individuals have made to society.

Jewish Contributions to Society
Albert Einstein Physicist
Jonas Salk Created first Polio Vaccine.
Albert Sabin Developed the oral vaccine for Polio.
Galileo Discovered the speed of light
Selman Waksman Discovered Streptomycin. Coined the word 'antibiotic'.
Gabriel Lipmann Discovered color photography.
Baruch Blumberg Discovered origin and spread of infectious diseases.
G. Edelman Discovered chemical structure of antibodies.
Briton Epstein Identified first cancer virus.
Maria Meyer Structure of atomic nuclei.
Julius Mayer Discovered law of thermodynamics.
Sigmund Freud Father of Psychotherapy.
Christopher Columbus (Marano) Discovered the Americas.
Benjamin Disraeli Prime Minister of Great Britain 1804-1881
Isaac Singer Invented the sewing machine.
Levi Strauss Largest manufacturer of Denim Jeans.
Joseph Pulitzer Established 'Pulitzer Prize' for achievements in journalism, literature, music & art.

And the remnant of Jacob shall be in the midst of many peoples, as dew from the Lord, as showers upon the grass..." MICAH 5:6*

JEWISH NOBEL PRIZE WINNERS
CHEMISTRY
ECONOMICS
LITERATURE
MEDICINE
PEACE
PHYSICS
JEWS IN ANTHROPOLOGY
JEWS IN BIOMEDICAL SCIENCE
JEWS IN CHEMISTRY
JEWS IN CHESS
JEWS IN COMPUTER & INFORMATION SCIENCE
JEWS IN ECONOMICS
JEWS IN LINGUISTICS
JEWS IN LITERATURE
JEWS IN MATHEMATICS
JEWS IN MUSIC
JEWS IN PHILOSOPHY
JEWS IN PHYSICS
JEWS IN PSYCHOLOGY
JEWS IN SOCIOLOGY
REFLECTIONS ON JUDAISM AND THE JEWS
THE WHAT, WHY, & WHO OF THIS WEBSITE

The purpose of this website is to provide an online resource that accurately describes the Jewish contribution to the cultural, scientific, and technological evolution of civilization. Although there are scores of websites currently on the Internet that purport to characterize the Jews and their impact on the world, nearly all of them are sponsored by groups whose ultimate objectives vis-à-vis the Jews range from defamation to outright elimination. Many of the classic works of the anti-Semitic canon, once confined to the fever swamps, have become widely available via these websites, a few of which actually display legal disclaimers concerning their potential for incitement to "unlawful or criminal acts." (The composer Arnold Schoenberg once asked in this connection: "What is anti-Semitism to lead to if not acts of violence? Is it so difficult to imagine that?")

JINFO.ORG has no outside organizational affiliation or sponsorship. The website is an evolving project with new sections being added periodically. Statistical metrics are extensively employed because they are the most efficient technique for objectively summarizing and conveying an overall view of the large quantities of data involved.

Concerning Jewish identity, the vast majority (over 90%) of the individuals listed here as being Jewish are such by virtue of having had two Jewish parents. Also included, however, are individuals with one Jewish parent, as well as a number of Jews-by-choice, with the listings of individuals in the latter two categories qualified as such. In adopting this criterion for inclusion, we have followed the practice employed by the Jewish encyclopedias for more than a century.

CONTACT JINFO.ORG

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Reproduction of any part of this website
without the express, prior written permission of JINFO.ORG is prohibited.

* The passage numbered Micah 5:6 in Jewish Bibles is numbered 5:7 in Christian Bibles.
JEWS IN THE MEDICAL & LIFE SCIENCES
JINFO.ORG
Prior to presenting his appeal to Oliver Cromwell for the readmission of the Jews, who had been expelled from England in 1290, Manasseh ben Israel wrote in The Hope of Israel 1: "Hence it may be seen that God hath not left us; for if one persecutes us, another receives us civilly and courteously; and if this prince treats us ill, another treats us well; if one banisheth us out of his country, another invites us with a thousand privileges ... and do we not see that those Republiques do flourish and much increase in trade who admit the Israelites?" But it was not for their economic prowess alone that the Jews were valued, it was for a whole host of skills, not the least of which was their expertise in the medical arts.

Winston Churchill, writing of the expulsion referred to above, states: "The Jews, held up to universal hatred, were pillaged, maltreated, and finally expelled from the realm. Exception was made for certain physicians without whose skill persons of consequence might have lacked due attention."2 Indeed, more often than not, the chief court physicians of the rulers of Europe were Jews or crypto-Jews. To cite but a few examples, Frederick III of the Holy Roman Empire, Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, Elizabeth I of England, Louis XIV of France, Catherine de Medici, and Catherine the Great of Russia all at one time or another employed Jewish personal physicians.3 Nor was it only the secular rulers of Christendom that depended on Jewish medical skills. As the Spanish philosopher and theologian Ramon Lull (Raymond Lully) complained in the thirteenth century: "Jews are universally entrusted by the great with the care of their health. Nor is the Church free from this abomination, for nearly every monastery has its Jewish physician."4 Among the many Popes who maintained Jewish personal physicians were Martin IV, Nicholas IV, Boniface VIII, Alexander VI, Julius II, Leo X, Clement VII, Paul III, Gregory XV, Urban VIII, and Innocent X.5

Much the same situation prevailed in Dar al-Islam, where, e.g., Maimonides served as court physician to Saladin the Great's Vizier Al-Fadhil and later to Saladin's son and successor. Jews also figured prominently as translators and transmitters to the Moslem world of the medical scholarship of the ancient Greeks, and would later play a similar role in transmitting to Europe the scholarship of Moslem physicians such as Avicenna. In the late Middle Ages, the Jews, numbering only about 1% of Europe's population, constituted roughly half of its physicians.6 During the last of the great European Jewish expulsions in the 1930s, the medical centers of Vienna and Berlin lost nearly half of their physicians and the majority of their medical school faculties.7 Many fled to America, helping to fuel its meteoric rise to preeminence in biomedical research; Jews have accounted for some 40% of US Nobel Prizes in medicine and constitute over one-third of the combined membership of the life sciences divisions of the US National Academy of Sciences and its affiliated Institute of Medicine.

The following links contain lists of prominent Jewish scientists and recipients of major international awards in the biomedical field. The last link below contains an analysis showing that of all the lives saved by all the scientific and medical advances in human history, more than three-fourths of those lives were saved by advances for which Jews constituted fifty percent or more of the principal developers.
Jewish Biomedical & Life Scientists
Jewish Recipients of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (27% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the Lasker Award in Basic Medical Research (32% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the Gairdner Foundation Awards (26% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the Wolf Prize in Medicine (41% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize (43% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the GM Cancer Research Foundation Sloan Prize (38% of recipients)
Jews Among the Creators of History's Greatest Lifesaving Medical & Scientific Advances (estimated 2.8 billion lives saved)
Some of the more notable Jewish contributions to the medical and biological sciences in the modern era are listed below. (The names of non-Jewish scientists mentioned in the accompanying discussion have been denoted with the superscript "+" in order to avoid confusion.)

The invention of local anesthesia by Carl Koller and the discovery of Novocaine by Alfred Einhorn.
The discovery that pancreatic dysfunction is the cause of diabetes by Oskar Minkowski (together with Joseph von Mering+) and the subsequent discovery that this dysfunction involves a deficiency in the hormonal secretions of the islets of Langerhans by Moses Barron. The work of the Canadian team that isolated insulin (Banting+, Best+, Collip+, and Macleod+) was based on these two prior discoveries.
The discovery of the ABO and other human blood groups and of the Rh factor by Karl Landsteiner. (The M, N, and P blood groups were co-discovered with Philip Levine and the Rh factor was co-discovered with Alexander Wiener). Landsteiner received the 1930 Nobel Prize for this work, which made safe blood transfusions possible for the first time. Landsteiner is also considered to be one of the giants of immunology, having made major contributions to the understanding of the chemical basis of antigen-antibody Jews, by Bernt Engelmann (Bantam, New York, 1984, pp. 59-60).
8. Billy Woodward et al., Scientists Greater than Einstein: The Biggest Lifesavers of the Twentieth Century (Linden, Chicago, 2009, pp. 315, 321).
9. Heynick, Jews and Medicine: An Epic Saga, p.461.
10. See http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1119266.
11. See profile of Michael S. Levine by Karen Hopkin in The Scientist (Vol. 21, No. 3, 2007, p. 58).
12. Endless Forms Most Beautiful: The New Science of Evo Devo, by Sean Carroll (W.W. Norton, New York, 2005, p. 9).
13. See Discovering the RNA Double Helix and Hybridization, by Alexander Varshavsky in Cell (Vol. 127, 29 December 2006, pp. 1295-1297).
14. The image reconstruction algorithm employed in all tomographic imaging is based on the Radon transform, which was invented by the Austrian mathematician Johann Radon+ in 1917. In his paper, Radon+ states that his result is based on the prior work of Hermann Minkowski and Paul Funk. Minkowski was the younger brother of the above-mentioned physiologist Oskar Minkowski. Paul Funk was a Czech-Jewish mathematician who survived internment in the Nazi concentration camp at Terezín (Theresienstadt). Gábor Frank obtained the first patents for x-ray tomographic scanning (1938 patents in both Hungary and Germany). Unlike Funk, he did not return from the camps. See Made in Hungary, by Andrew Simon (Simon Publications, Safety Harbor, FL, 1999, p. 266).
A Brief History
On June 19, 1269, the King of France, Louis IX, ordered that any Jew found in any public place not wearing the obligatory yellow badge would be fined 10 livres of silver. (Note: The livre was the monetary unit in France before 1795 when they came up with the franc. The word stems from the Latin word for “pound” and the original livre in 781 CE was 1 pound of silver.) People of Jewish faith or lineage have suffered discrimination and worse for many centuries. Meanwhile, many Jewish scientists, composers, educators, and artists of all types among others have enriched mankind. For example, 3 of the 7 justices on the US Supreme Court are Jewish. (Some of the inventions of Jews; safety razor, printed circuit board, cell phone, transistor, computer mouse, defibrillator, Esperanto, video tape, the Corvette, and the cotton swab.) Here we list 10 of the greatest contributions of people of Jewish background to the United States and the World. Who else would you include? (Note: The arbitrary order listed does not denote relative value of the contribution.)

Digging Deeper
10. Julius Fromm, Latex Condom.


With the loosening of sexual inhibitions after the prudish Victorian age, people obviously needed protection against unwanted pregnancy and disease. Condoms then were made of natural “skin” substances (animal intestines) and of rubber. The rubber condoms were made by wrapping layers of rubber around a mold and then cooking it. Fromm invented a way to make the latex liquid and manufacture the condoms by dipping a mold into the liquid. His invention was made in 1916, and the thinner, cheaper condom was a big success throughout Europe. He also invented the condom vending machine in 1928, leading to the gas station bathroom graffiti, “Don’t buy this gum, it tastes like rubber!”

9. Ruth Handler, Barbie Doll.


Ranking close to the Teddy Bear in the hearts of American children, Barbie has kept girls company since 1959. Handler and her husband were co-founders of Mattel (with Harold Matson) and were manufacturing plastic items such as picture frames when Ruth got the inspiration for Barbie from their daughter, Barbara. The invention of Barbie has made millions of little girls happy and millions of parents wondering where their money went when Barbie “needed” all those accessories.

8. Morris Michtom, Teddy Bear.


Taking inspiration from a cartoon of President Teddy Roosevelt showing a little bear mercy while hunting, Morris and his wife Rose created the Teddy Bear and turned it into an American icon. Cracked fact: Their daughter appeared in 40+ episodes of the television show, Get Smart as a background character.

7. Benjamin Disraeli, British Statesman.


Although born a Sephardic Jew, Disraeli’s father had his family switch to Anglican when Ben was 12, obviously to blend in to British society. (Anglican is the state religion of the United Kingdom.) Disraeli went on to a distinguished career in British politics, serving as Prime Minister and as Chancellor of the Exchequer, as well as a Conservative member of Parliament.

6. Laszlo Biro, Ball Point Pen.


Just think, before 1944 when this Hungarian Jew invented the ball point pen, there were no copy machines and the use of carbon paper to make handwritten copies must have been horrendous with a fountain pen. Smudge free writing and many times less likely to cause a laundry disaster than a fountain pen. Thanks Laszlo!

5. Claude Levi-Strauss, Anthropology.


No he did not invent blue jeans (probably wishes he did!). Claude is called the Father of Modern Anthropology for his work concerning structuralism and structural anthropology. He also studied mythology and applied his structuralist approach to that field. President of France (at the time) Nicolas Sarkozy called him “The greatest ethnologist of our time.” upon his death at age 100 in 2009. Born in Belgium, Levi-Strauss spent most of his life in France.

4. J. Robert Oppenheimer and Edward Teller, Nuclear Physics.


Whether you think nuclear weapons are a good thing or not, Oppenheimer is considered the Father of the Atomic Bomb and Teller is considered the Father of the Hydrogen Bomb. Both were born into Jewish families and both worked in the United States, although Teller was born in Hungary. The fact that these scientists enabled the US to be the first to get nuclear weapons may well have prevented a catastrophe for the Western world had the Soviets or Chinese gotten such weapons first.

3. Sanford “Sandy” Koufax, Baseball.


Born Sanford Braun, Koufax played only 11 years of big league baseball, but what spectacular years they were. He pitched 4 no hitters, struck out 2396 batters and had a career ERA of 2.76. Along with Nolan Ryan, Koufax is one of only two pitchers in the Hall of Fame that struck out more batters than innings they pitched. Amazing fact: In Koufax’s last year (1966) he was 27-9 with a 1.73 ERA! His salary for that fantastic season; a career high $125,000. Koufax famously refused to pitch a World Series game on Yom Kippur, a Jewish holy day.

2. Sigmund Schlomo Freud, Psychoanalysis.


This Austrian Jew is the Father of Psychoanalysis and as such greatly influenced those psychiatrists that came after him. His research and thinking is some of the most influential and insightful delving into the human mind of all time. Cracked fact: Freud thought that the fear of castration among males is provoked by uncircumcised boys seeing boys that are circumcised and as such this constitutes the root of anti-Semitism. Additionally, Freud thought that belief in God is an “illusion” and basically exists to calm man’s fear of “nature” and death.

1. Albert Einstein, Science.


Among other things, Einstein is most famous for his Special and General Theories of Relativity, and for his equation, E= MC2². Often referred to as the smartest man in history, Einstein was in the United States when Hitler and the Nazis took power in Germany where Einstein had been working as a professor in Berlin. Einstein chose to stay in the US as he rightly figured going back to Germany was suicidal. Fun facts: No one knows what Einstein’s last words were because he spoke them in German and no German speaking person was present. Recently discovered correspondence indicates that Einstein was probably an atheist, although he never said so publicly.

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What the Jewish people have done militarily for their tiny nation, has the respect of their allies , and their enemies alike.

:Offtopic:
interaction.
The development of the sodium citrate blood storage technique by Richard Lewisohn. Prior to Lewisohn's work in 1913, blood could not be stored and had to be transfused directly between donor and recipient. The use of sodium citrate as an anticoagulant, together with the use of refrigeration (introduced by Richard Weil), permitted creation of the first blood banks. Lewisohn and Karl Landsteiner (see above) are considered to be the two researchers most responsible for the invention of modern blood transfusion, which is estimated to have saved in excess of one billion lives since the 1950s alone, making it the single greatest lifesaving medical advance in history.8
The introduction of the side-chain theory of antibody formation by Paul Ehrlich, which has evolved into clonal selection theory, the central paradigm of modern immunology. Ehrlich shared the 1908 Nobel Prize with Élie Metchnikoff* for their independent contributions to immunology. Ehrlich is also considered to be the founder of modern chemotherapeutic medicine. His development of Salvarsan (1909) and Neosalvarsan (1911) constituted the first effective treatment for syphilis and, in the words of Sir Alexander Fleming+, "the beginning - and a magnificent beginning - of bacterial chemotherapy." 9
The isolation and development of penicillin by Sir Ernst Chain. Chain shared the 1945 Nobel Prize for this work with Sir Alexander Fleming+ and Sir Howard Florey+. It was Chain who recognized the potential of Fleming's+ nearly forgotten discovery of the antibacterial properties of Penicillium molds (one of many agents then known to have such properties). Chain, a biochemist, was able to isolate the active antibacterial substance, viz., penicillin, and to work out its molecular structure (later confirmed in the Nobel-Prize-winning x-ray diffraction work of Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin+). Using samples that Chain produced, Chain and Florey+ demonstrated penicillin's stability, nontoxicity, and effectiveness against staphylococcal, streptococcal, and clostridial infections in laboratory animals and humans.
The development of streptomycin by Selman Waksman and Albert Schatz. Waksman received the 1952 Nobel Prize for this work, which created the first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis, for which (in combination with other drugs) it remains a therapeutic mainstay.
The development of isoniazid by Herbert Fox and Harry Yale. Although isoniazid, the leading drug used in the treatment of tuberculosis since the mid-1950s, was first synthesized in 1912 by Josef Mally+ and Hans Leopold Meyer (who later died in the Nazi concentration camp at Terezín), its anti-tubercular properties were not discovered until the early 1950s, when it was independently re-synthesized and clinically explored by three separate groups. These were headed, respectively, by Fox at Hoffmann-La Roche, Yale at Squibb, and Gerhard Domagk+ at Bayer. Isoniazid, used early on in combination with streptomycin and a third drug, para-amino salicylic acid (PAS), and more recently in combination with other drugs, has saved over a hundred million lives since the 1950s. (PAS was developed by Jörgen Lehmann+ in Denmark, based on studies carried out by Frederick Bernheim in the US. In these studies, Bernheim established the metabolic role of salicylic acid in the tubercle bacillus. PAS is basically designed to interfere with these salicylate-dependant metabolic processes, ultimately impairing or killing the bacillus.) In a related, but separate development, iproniazid, an isoniazid derivative first synthesized by Fox in 1951 as a potential anti-tubercular agent, was found to have powerful anti-depressant effects. It subsequently became the basis for the MAOIs (mono-amine oxidase inhibitors) that revolutionized the treatment of clinical depression in the post-war period.
The isolation of cortisone by Tadeus Reichstein. Reichstein shared the 1950 Nobel Prize with Edward Kendall+ and Philip Hench+. Reichstein and Kendall+ were recognized for having independently isolated and characterized the hormones of the adrenal cortex, the most important of which was cortisone.
The chemical synthesis of cortisone by Lewis Sarett*, Max Tishler, and Carl Djerassi. Sarett, working under Tishler at Merck, achieved the first chemical synthesis of the compound. With subsequent improvements by Tishler, Sarett's synthesis made cortisone a commercially available drug for the first time. Further advances achieved independently by Djerassi and by Percy Julian+ made economically viable, large-scale production possible. Sarett, Tishler, and Djerassi were all awarded US National Medals of Science (in 1975, 1987, and 1973, respectively).
The development of aspirin by Arthur Eichengrun and Felix Hoffmann+. Aspirin is an artificially modified form of salicylic acid, a naturally occurring substance that can be obtained from the bark of willow trees, whose analgesic properties have been known since antiquity. Salicylic acid is, however, very poorly tolerated by the digestive system, which greatly limits its medicinal value. Early attempts to reduce its toxicity through acetylation failed to yield acetylsalicylic acid of sufficient purity to be medicinally useful. The first successful synthesis of pure acetylsalicylic acid was achieved in 1897 by Felix Hoffmann+, working at F. Bayer & Co. in Germany. Recently developed evidence indicates, however, that credit for this development should have gone equally, or even predominantly, to Hoffmann's+ Jewish supervisor, Arthur Eichengrun.10
The discovery of prostaglandins by M. W. Goldblatt. (Also discovered independently by Ulf von Euler+.) Sir John Vane* was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1982 for demonstrating that the anti-inflammatory and analgesic action of aspirin-like drugs was via their inhibition of prostaglandin production. Vane also discovered the vasodilator prostacyclin, which led directly to the development of the ACE inhibitors that are widely used in the treatment of hypertension, heart failure, and other vascular diseases. The development of the COX-2 selective inhibitors (such as the "super-aspirin" Celebrex, widely used by severe arthritis sufferers) was largely the work of Philip Needleman.
The discovery of neurotransmitters by Otto Loewi. Loewi shared the 1936 Nobel Prize with Sir Henry Dale+ for their independent work on acetylcholine. Sir Bernard Katz and Julius Axelrod shared the 1970 Nobel Prize with Ulf von Euler+ for advanced work on neurotransmitters. Their work led directly to the development of the class of anti-depressants that includes Prozac, Zoloft, and Paxil. Axelrod, together with Bernard Brodie, Leon Greenberg, and David Lester, was largely responsible for the development of the pain reliever acetaminophen (Tylenol).
The discovery of endorphins and enkephalins by Solomon Snyder and Hans Kosterlitz, respectively. The discovery by Snyder of the opioid receptors in the mammalian nervous system led to the further discovery of endorphins and enkephalins, endogenous opioids that help to control mood and pain. The opioid receptors play a large role in the action of pain killers such as morphine. This new understanding of opioid action has in turn led to the development of synthetic pain killing substitutes with diminished potential for addiction. Snyder and Kosterlitz shared the 1978 Lasker Award in Basic Medical Research for this work.
The discovery and characterization of growth factors by Rita Levi-Montalcini, Viktor Hamburger, and Stanley H. Cohen. Levi-Montalcini and Cohen shared the 1986 Nobel Prize for their identification and isolation of the nerve and epidermal growth factors, respectively. Growth factors (others of which were subsequently discovered) are protein molecular "signals" emitted by cells to control growth and differentiation in neighboring cells. Cohen also elucidated the biochemical pathways through which growth factors act after binding to receptors on the outer membranes of target cells. Growth factors play a large role in embryonic development and are thought to have potential medical application in nerve regeneration, accelerated wound healing, and in the understanding and control of tumor cell proliferation. The "blockbuster" drug Herceptin for treating breast and other cancers is based, in part, on Cohen's epidermal growth factor research.
The development of Warfarin (Coumadin) anticoagulant therapy by Shepard Shapiro. Warfarin is the most commonly used anticoagulant for the prevention of heart attacks and strokes. It is also one of the most widely prescribed medications in the world. It was discovered in 1946 by Karl Paul Link+, who developed it as a rat poison. Its identification and development for use in human anticoagulant therapy resulted from the work of Shapiro in the early 1950s. Previously, in the early 1940s, Shapiro had pioneered the clinical use of the anti-clotting agent methylene dicoumarin (dicoumarol), which was also discovered by Link+.
The development of oral contraceptives by Gregory Pincus, Carl Djerassi, and Frank Colton.
The development of the Salk and Sabin polio vaccines by Jonas Salk and Albert Sabin, respectively. The resulting worldwide near-eradication of polio is estimated to be preventing over one-half million new cases of lifelong paralysis each year. The discovery that the causative agent in polio was, in fact, a virus was made in 1908 by Karl Landsteiner and Erwin Popper.
The development of the hepatitis-B vaccine by Baruch Blumberg and Irving Millman. Blumberg received the 1976 Nobel Prize, in part for this work, which has saved an estimated six-to-seven million lives.
The co-discovery of interferon by Alick Isaacs (in collaboration with Jean Lindenmann+). The large-scale production of recombinant interferon for medical use (a market currently in excess of $15 billion annually) is based largely on the work of Charles Weissmann and Sidney Pestka. Pestka received the US National Medal of Technology in 2001. Interferons are widely used in the treatment of multiple sclerosis, leukemias and lymphomas, melanomas, and hepatitis B and C.
The co-invention of monoclonal antibodies by César Milstein. Milstein shared the 1984 Nobel Prize with Georges Köhler+ for this work. Four of the top ten "blockbuster" anti-cancer drugs, including the top three, are now based on monoclonal antibody technology. The development of all four drugs was based on the application of this research to other research conducted by Jewish scientists. Specifically, Rituxan is based on the non-Hodgkin's lymphoma research of Ronald Levy; Avastin is based on the angiogenesis research pioneered by Judah Folkman; Herceptin is based on the the epidermal growth factor research of Stanley H. Cohen and the HER-2/neu protein research of Robert Weinberg, Jeffrey Drebin, and Mark Greene; and Erbitux is based on research by Michael Sela and John Mendelsohn. The combined annual sales of these four drugs are in excess of $20 billion. (Of the remaining six "small molecule" drugs among the top ten blockbuster anti-cancer agents, at least two are based on the research of Jewish scientists. Specifically, Velcade is based on work by Julian Adams, Avram Hershko, Alexander Varshavsky, Aaron Ciechanover, and Irwin Rose; and Gleevec is based, in part, on the research of Brian Druker.)
The invention of cancer chemotherapy by Louis Goodman, Alfred Gilman, and Sidney Farber. In the early 1940s, Goodman and Gilman discovered the effectiveness of mechlorethamine ("nitrogen mustard") in the treatment of lymphatic malignancies. In the late 1940s, Farber produced the first chemically induced remissions from leukemia using the folic acid inhibitors aminopterin and methotrexate. Eventually mechlorethamine and methotrexate, used in combination with other anti-cancer agents (mechlorethamine is the "M" in MOPP) and radiation, would lead to cures for many previously fatal lymphomas and leukemias, respectively.
The co-development of 6-MP (6-mercaptopurine) by Gertrude Elion, which used in combination with methotrexate and other drugs, has led to cures for most forms of childhood leukemia. Elion was also the co-developer of azathioprine (Imuran), the immunosuppressant that made organ transplants possible between individuals other than identical twins, and of acyclovir (Zovirax) for the treatment of herpes viral infections. Elion and George Hitchings+ received the 1988 Nobel Prize for their joint work.
The discovery and development of cisplatin by Barnett Rosenberg, which has led to a complete reversal in the prognosis for testicular cancer, a malignancy that had almost always been fatal and is now roughly 90% curable. The chemotherapeutic protocols for the use of cisplatin in the treatment and cure of testicular cancer were developed by Lawrence Einhorn (who supervised the successful treatment of Tour de France champion Lance Armstrong+).
The revolutionizing of radiation oncology by Henry Kaplan. Kaplan, the long-time head of radiology at Stanford Medical School, introduced the use of megavolt x-ray therapy in the 1950s, using linear accelerators (LINACs) to generate the required high-energy radiation. The medical LINAC is now the primary tool used in radiation oncology worldwide. Since the 1950s, an estimated forty million cancer patients have received such radiation treatments. (Currently about half of all cancer patients receive radiotherapy, primarily from LINAC-generated x-rays.) Even more significantly, Kaplan and his associates demonstrated that radiotherapy could be employed as a curative, rather than a merely palliative, cancer treatment. By the late 1970s, using radiotherapy protocols largely developed by Kaplan and his group, cure rates of 70%-80% were being achieved in patients with early-stage Hodgkin's lymphoma, which had previously been a uniformly fatal disease. Kaplan and Saul Rosenberg were the first to apply chemotherapy as an adjunct to radiation therapy in Hodgkin's disease, their regimens achieving initial cure rates in the late 1970s of 30%-40% in late-stage Hodgkin's disease. (With subsequent dramatic improvements in chemotherapy, the primary and secondary roles of radiation and chemotherapy have been reversed; cure rates are now 98% in early-stage Hodgkin's disease and 85% in advanced disease.) Kaplan and his associates were also responsible for the clinical trial studies that established the utility of the histopathologic classification scheme for non-Hodgkin's lymphomas proposed by Henry Rappaport in 1956. Although not widely accepted at the time, the Rappaport classification (with subsequent modifications) has become the most widely used in the staging and treatment of non-Hodgkin's lymphomas. For his pioneering work in radiation oncology, Kaplan became in 1969 the only biomedical scientist to be awarded the prestigious Atoms for Peace Award.
The co-discovery of oncogenes by Harold Varmus and the elucidation of their role in human cancer by Robert Weinberg, Michael Wigler, Bert Vogelstein, Arnold Levine, and others. Varmus shared the 1989 Nobel Prize with Michael Bishop+ for this work.
The discovery of retroviruses and their associated reverse transcriptase enzyme by David Baltimore and Howard Temin. Baltimore and Temin shared the 1975 Nobel Prize for their independent discovery of these viruses, which are implicated in AIDS and in some cancers, and whose existence disproved the "central dogma" of molecular biology.
The development of AZT, protease inhibitors, and other drugs used in the treatment of AIDS by Jerome Horwitz, Samuel Broder, and Irving Sigal. AZT (Retrovir), which was originally synthesized by Horwitz for use as an anti-cancer agent, proved to be the first of the reverse transcriptase inhibitors found effective against HIV. Its identification as such in clinical trials was largely the result of efforts led by Broder, who also co-developed two other reverse transcriptase inhibitors (ddl and ddC). Sigal, who was senior director of molecular biology at Merck prior to his death in the 1988 bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland, was the first to demonstrate the effectiveness of protease inhibitors against HIV. Used in combination, the various reverse transcriptase and protease inhibitors have dramatically improved the outlook for AIDS patients.
The elucidation of the biochemistry of cellular metabolism by Otto Warburg*, Otto Meyerhof, Gustav Embden, Jacob Parnas, Sir Hans Krebs, Fritz Lipmann, Herman Kalckar, Carl Neuberg, Gerty Cori, Konrad Bloch, and others. This includes much of the basic work on glycolysis (Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway), the urea and citric acid cycles (Krebs cycles), the pentose phosphate pathway, and oxidative phosphorylation and the role of ATP, as well as significant contributions to the characterization of glycogen and fatty acid metabolism. Warburg, Meyerhof, Krebs, Lipmann, Cori, and Bloch all received Nobel Prizes.
The invention of radioisotopic tracer techniques by George de Hevesy, Friedrich Paneth, Rudolf Schoenheimer, David Rittenberg, Martin Kamen, William Hassid, and Samuel Ruben. Hevesy and Paneth introduced the general technique, for which Hevesy won the 1943 Nobel Prize in chemistry; Kamen and Ruben discovered the long-lived carbon-14 radioisotope, which has had widespread application in biology (and is also the basis of radiocarbon dating). Melvin Calvin employed carbon-14 to elucidate the so-called dark reactions of photosynthesis, for which he was awarded the 1961 Nobel Prize in chemistry. (Others who made major contributions to the understanding of photosynthesis include the physicist George Feher and the Nobel laureates James Franck, Richard Willstätter, and Otto Warburg*.)
The invention of radioimmunoassay by Rosalyn Yalow and Solomon Berson, which has revolutionized clinical and research practice in such fields as endocrinology and blood banking. The technique, which can be made exquisitely sensitive to trace amounts (nano- and pico-molar concentrations) of specific blood substances, is employed in measuring the levels of most hormones, screening donated blood for hepatitis-B virus, and in allergy and drug level testing. Yalow received the Nobel Prize in 1977 for this work. (Berson died in 1972.)
The determination of key components of the experimental basis for the double helix model of DNA by Phoebus Levene, Erwin Chargaff, and Rosalind Franklin. In 1929, Levene discovered that DNA contains a sugar called deoxyribose and that it consists of a chain of what he termed "nucleotides," units composed of the deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate group, and one of four purine or pyrimidine bases. (The purine and pyrimidine molecular base constituents of DNA were discovered by the German biochemist Albrecht Kossel+.) Levene incorrectly concluded that all four bases were present in equal proportions. Chargaff, however, showed that the four bases were, in fact, present in specific pairwise ratios ([adenine]=[thymine] =/= [guanine]=[cytosine]), implying both structural base pairing and base coding of the genetic information. Finally, Rosalind Franklin's x-ray crystallographic studies of DNA provided the clear evidence for a double helical structure. The theoretical model of Watson+ and Crick+ was largely based on the experimental data provided by the aforementioned chemical and structural analyses.
The breaking of the genetic code by Marshall Nirenberg. Nirenberg and Har Gobind Khorana+ shared the 1968 Nobel Prize for their independent determinations of the code.
The co-discovery of the basic mechanisms of gene regulation by François Jacob, Walter Gilbert, Mark Ptashne, Andrew Fire, Gary Ruvkun, Howard Cedar, Aharon Razin, Michael Grunstein, and Michael Levine. Jacob shared the 1965 Nobel Prize with Jacques Monod+ for their joint work on the development of the operon-repressor model of gene regulation, which was experimentally confirmed by Gilbert, who isolated the lac operon repressor (but whose 1980 Nobel Prize in chemistry was in recognition of other work), and by Ptashne, whose exploration of the phage lambda switch greatly elucidated the process by which regulatory proteins (repressors) switch on and off gene expression. Fire co-discovered RNA interference, an RNA-based gene control process, for which he shared a Nobel Prize in 2006. A second RNA-based gene control mechanism involving short strands of RNA called microRNA was co-discovered by Ruvkun. Cedar and Razin shared the 2008 Wolf Prize in Medicine for their role in the discovery of DNA methylation, which together with histone modification, co-discovered by Grunstein, forms the basis of the new field of epigenetics, which deals with the molecular mechanisms involved in gene activation and suppression by environmental influences. Levine's work on the organization and function of the homeobox genes (which he co-discovered) "has done for animal development what the work on the lac operon and phage lambda did for understanding gene regulation in simpler organisms."11 The discovery of these master genes and their role in development has "shattered our previous notions of animal relationships and of what made animals different, and opened up a whole new way of looking at evolution."12
The discovery of RNA and major contributions to the elucidation of its structure and function by Phoebus Levene, François Jacob, Sydney Brenner, Matthew Meselson, Sol Spiegelman, Sidney Altman, Sir Aaron Klug, Alexander Rich, Leslie Orgel, Andrew Fire, Gary Ruvkun, Roger Kornberg, Ada Yonath, and others. RNA was first identified as a nucleic acid distinct from DNA by Levene in the course of his seminal studies of the nucleic acids in the early part of the twentieth century. The concept of messenger RNA (mRNA) as an information-bearing DNA-to-ribosome intermediary in protein synthesis was first formulated by Jacob and Jacques Monod+ in 1961 and subsequently verified in experiments conducted by Brenner, Jacob, Meselson, and Spiegelman. The surprising catalytic properties of RNA were independently discovered by Altman and by Thomas Cech+, supporting the concept of a pre-biotic "RNA world," first proposed in 1963 by Rich and, independently a few years later, by Orgel and others. Definitive x-ray diffraction studies of RNA structure were first carried out independently by Klug and by Rich. Rich co-discovered double helical RNA and went on to discover the more general process of nucleic acid hybridization, whose further development would "become the technical foundation of modern molecular biology."13 Nucleic acid hybridization, e.g., lies at the heart of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which has revolutionized molecular biological research practice. Double helical RNA has recently been found to play a role in the control of gene expression in a process called RNA interference (RNAi), which was co-discovered by Fire. Another RNA control process regulating gene expression that involves very short, single-stranded RNA molecules called microRNA (miRNA) was co-discovered by Ruvkun. In recent years, sophisticated x-ray crystallographic analyses using synchrotron radiation sources were developed and employed by Kornberg to elucidate the structural dynamics of RNA-polymerase-directed DNA-to-mRNA transcription. Cryo-crystallographic and synchrotron radiation techniques were also developed and used by Ada Yonath to elucidate the structural dynamics of the process of translation, i.e., ribosomal protein synthesis, which involves mRNA, rRNA (ribosomal RNA), and tRNA (transfer RNA). These studies have revealed the ribosome to be, in fact, a very complex ribozyme (RNA enzyme). Jacob, Brenner, Altman, Klug, Fire, Kornberg, and Yonath were all awarded Nobel Prizes. Rich received the US National Medal of Science in 1995.
The co-invention of gene splicing by Stanley N. Cohen. Cohen and Herbert Boyer's+ invention opened up the new field of genetic engineering. Cohen and Boyer+ were recipients of both the US National Medal of Science and the US National Medal of Technology. The latter award cited them "for their fundamental discovery of gene splicing techniques allowing replication in quantity of biomedically important new products, and beneficially transformed plant materials. This discovery of recombinant DNA technology has transformed the basic science of molecular biology and the biotechnology industry." Other major contributors to genetic engineering include Paul Berg, Walter Gilbert, and Daniel Nathans, all of whom received Nobel Prizes for their work.
The discovery of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) by I. I. Rabi. Rabi received the 1944 Nobel Prize in physics for the demonstration of NMR in molecular beams. Felix Bloch shared the 1952 Nobel Prize in physics with Edward Purcell+ for their independent inventions of condensed matter NMR spectroscopy, which is important in biomolecular structure studies, as well as being the basis of the MRI diagnostic imaging technique.14
The invention of the flexible endoscope by Basil Hirschowitz, which has revolutionized surgery by greatly reducing the complexity and invasiveness of many surgical procedures. (This work, undertaken in the mid-1950s, led to the production of the first glass-clad optical fibers, which later revolutionized modern telecommunications.)
The co-invention of LASIK eye surgery by Samuel Blum (together with Rangaswamy Srinivasan+ and James Wynne+).
The invention of phacoemulsification cataract surgery by Charles Kelman, which is the technique most widely used for cataract removal worldwide. More than two hundred million such operations have been performed. It has revolutionized the procedure by completely eliminating the need for hospitalization, which had previously averaged one week. Kelman was a recipient of both the US National Medal of Technology in 1992 and the Lasker Award for Clinical Medical Research in 2004 (posthumously).
The invention of the cardiac defibrillator, external pacemaker, and cardiac monitor by Paul Zoll. Zoll (and, independently, Wilson Greatbatch+ ) later invented the implantable cardiac pacemaker. Michel Mirowski and Morton Mower were two of the four inventors of the automatic, implantable cardiac defibrillator.
The invention of the Heimlich Maneuver by Henry Heimlich.
The co-invention of the basic technique used worldwide for the controlled chlorination of drinking water supplies by Abel Wolman. Wolman and Linn Enslow's+ invention resulted in a dramatic reduction in the incidence of such waterborne diseases as cholera, dysentery, and typhoid fever; as such, it was arguably the single most important contribution to public health in the twentieth century. The number of lives thereby saved has been variously estimated as running into the hundreds of millions. Wolman received both the Lasker Award for Public Service in 1960 and the US National Medal of Science in 1974. The Abel Wolman Municipal Building, one of the largest buildings in Baltimore, MD (where he taught at Johns Hopkins), was named in his honor.
NOTES
1. Manasseh ben Israel, The Hope of Israel (London, 1652), reprinted in Manasseh ben Israel's Mission to Oliver Cromwell, edited by Lucien Wolf (London, 1901, pp. 50-51).
2. Winston Churchill, History of the English-Speaking Peoples, Vol. 1 (Cassell, London, 1956).
3. Frank Heynick, Jews and Medicine: An Epic Saga (KTAV, Hoboken, NJ, 2002).
4. Ibid., p. 123.
5. Ibid., pp. 124,130-131.
6. Ibid., p. 13.
7. For statistics on Vienna, see Vienna and the Jews, 1867-1938: A Cultural History, by Steven Beller (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1989, pp. 36-
37); on Berlin, see
Germany Without[/QUOTE]

Thats more words that Axlies ever seen.

[GazzaH]

What about the Mexicans, Mr Trump?

[crack]

A racist weird mob:

On tonights news, our NZ banking industry made $5.2 billion profit, 4 of our main banks are Aussie owned::angry:

Bankers, Bankers, Bankers, what to do with a banker? 100 points for an Aussie one.:angry:

And this means that the NZ economy is Booming! what a measuring stick::sick:

Imagine for a second if they were NZ Banks!:done:

Fucking politics and Fuckwit economists,

The biggest economic terrorist, on the side of the international/world banking community, Roger fucking Douglas! and he gets a SIR for SCREWING his country.:shutup::shutup::shutup::shutup:

[Akzle]

What about the Mexicans, Mr Trump?
well just look at china... they built a wall thousands of years ago, and they have no mexicans jumping the border now do they.
science, bitches.

A racist weird mob:

On tonights news, our NZ banking industry made $5.2 billion profit, 4 of our main banks are Aussie owned::angry:

Bankers, Bankers, Bankers, what to do with a banker? 100 points for an Aussie one.:angry:

And this means that the NZ economy is Booming! what a measuring stick::sick:

Imagine for a second if they were NZ Banks!:done:

Fucking politics and Fuckwit economists,

The biggest economic terrorist, on the side of the international/world banking community, Roger fucking Douglas! and he gets a SIR for SCREWING his country.:shutup::shutup::shutup::shutup:

see: jews may be hunted for sport.

[mashman]

nz doesn't have the "hardened criminality" of, say, south africa. being shot isn't an occupational hazard. and we value life a lot more highly.
that said, no-one could be blamed for killing them. and if they're impinging someone elses right to peacable possession and free enjoyment of their lawfully held possessions... then you may impinge their right to free enjoyment of their vital organs...

i'm going to phase out taxation.
also, if you can find me medical grade uncut unfucked unadulterated heroin MDMA LSD on the street then...

... i'll buy it off you.

-or- kill all the homeless.

you need to look at all the possibilites man...

(also studies have shown that a) office workers are <60% useful on a good day; and b) that decreases when they can't grab each other's jock around the watercooler and talk shit about their inconsequential weekend lives with each other)

Shooting's for soft cocks. Hand to hand, televised (mucho $ for global rights... and to appease JATZ, they can eat them after.), let the hidden hand decide.

lol@phasing out taxation. I can hear the mass ejaculation from here. The only reason they create shit shit, iz coz money. Perhaps you could subsidise their progress instead of stifling it. Yer sounding like a typical capitalist scumbag there... one who doesn't look at all the possibilities.

Ye olde office worker can do that from home too. Except in comfort and with no need to stop mid stroke when someone come into the bog. Who knows, they may actually become more productive i.e. do their job in 2 hours instead of 8... as they'll be eager to get on with their day instead of dealing with someone else's.

[mashman]

Bankers, Bankers, Bankers, what to do with a banker? 100 points for an Aussie one.:angry:

Fucking politics and Fuckwit economists,


http://www.morssglobalfinance.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/z-2.jpg

[Akzle]

Shooting's for soft cocks. Hand to hand, televised (mucho $ for global rights... and to appease JATZ, they can eat them after.), let the hidden hand decide.

lol@phasing out taxation. I can hear the mass ejaculation from here. The only reason they create shit shit, iz coz money. Perhaps you could subsidise their progress instead of stifling it. Yer sounding like a typical capitalist scumbag there... one who doesn't look at all the possibilities.

Ye olde office worker can do that from home too. Except in comfort and with no need to stop mid stroke when someone come into the bog. Who knows, they may actually become more productive i.e. do their job in 2 hours instead of 8... as they'll be eager to get on with their day instead of dealing with someone else's.

compare the average averageman: is not trained in hand to hand combat. (and nor should they need be) (whereas the average crim probably been copping a hiding from dad since he was 10, which makes him manly and tough and gives him the right to use violence on other, weaker humanoids to gain power) presenting a firearm tends to stop most situations developing negatively (for the victim), if that fails, bullets deffo do.

you were well in line to be my finance minister :rofl:
now... maybe not. (you'll cry a river, i'm sure)
subsidy is an option. gimmie the cost-benefit-timeframe-viability-accountability analysis on that. if teh govt/hospos buy a bad batch off the blackpower, and kill grandma, who is going to eat shit?


fair. IF said office worker can achieve their shit from home. (i forsee most office jobs becoming obsolete anyway)
so far (granted, under the current system) studies show that: no.
which also shows the failings in the "your time is worth money" dogma that persists... if they only do 2 hours work, how do they make up the other 80% of their income...

[crack]

I was relieved when I read that after reading about being fourteen years overdue for gassing.

Where do I go to get the .50BMG training?

Free beers and .50 rounds.

[crack]

They are out to get you ...

How do you know? What do "they" look like?
Is it the queer bitch living in front of me? She, rides a black honda scooter! She wears this long trench coat!
Who sent her?

[Swoop]

The biggest economic terrorist, on the side of the international/world banking community, Roger fucking Douglas! and he gets a SIR for SCREWING his country.

Gotta love labour when they get hold of the financial reins of the country. :tugger:

[TheDemonLord]

IT is exempt and I've got my rifle.

Life is good.

However - you mentioned in another thread about a no-pants Thursday.

I believe this should be national policy, effective immediately.

[Berries]

w. Saw your avatar and was a bit taken aback. One of our more interesting members used it a few years back.

You mean while I have been incarcerated, (I didnt kill them honestly) :laugh:and undergone years of rectal prodding in the showers, someone stole my AVATAR!:2guns:

I did see a brief mention of The Jewish Culture on here.

I do not subscribe to anti semanticism, anti-semitic Ideology.

My reasoning is that I have studied history, & Jewish History, and their is no doubt they are our creators, (whoever you wish to call him) chosen people.

The Jewish people make up Under 1% of the worlds population, yet their contributions to Human Kind is HUGE.

A dear and now passed on, friend and colleague, "Steve" AKA JAWS, as a young Pilot officer saw service in the last months of world war two, he was detailed to fly politicians and those accused of war crimes, he and his mates went to the camps of extermination and visited to look at the accused of these horrendous crimes, he said they looked just like you and me, He could not figure out what had gone on in their head.

When they saw the "Bitch of Bergen-Belsen" we wanted to see how ugly this bitch "Irma Grese" was and we took bets as to who amongst us would do her if able! (young guys in their late teens/early 20's).

When they were taken to see her, she was used to having visits from such as Jaws and his mates, out of human interest, she did not like it, she apparently screamed, and nutted off that the polish guard entered her cell, punched her, threw her to the ground, then kicked her with his hobbed boats in the ribs so hard they heard the crack:

He/ dear old Steve, said he still dreamt of this ugly cow and her pure hatred, it shocked and scared him and his mates, (no one did her:laugh:)

They went along to watch her Hang instead.

Have a read if you wish, I leave it to you to form your own opinion.

y Luana Goriss
Updated July 03, 2017
Considering that the Jewish people constitute a mere one-half of one percent of the world's population, Jewish contributions to religion, science, literature, music, medicine, finance, philosophy, entertainment etc., is staggering.

In the field of medicine alone, Jewish contributions are staggering and continue to be so. It was a Jew who created the first polio vaccine, who discovered insulin, who discovered that aspirin dealt with pain, who discovered chloral hydrate for convulsions, who discovered streptomycin, who discovered the origin and spread of infectious diseases, who invented the test for diagnosis of syphilis, who identified the first cancer virus, who discovered the cure for pellagra and added to the knowledge about yellow fever, typhoid, typhus, measles, diphtheria and influenza.

Today, Israel, a nation only sixty years old, has emerged at the forefront of stem-cell research, which will, in the near future, give humanity unprecedented medical treatment for degenerative diseases.

There is a passage in the Talmud that says: “We find in the case of Cain, who killed his brother, that it is written: The bloods of thy brother cry unto me: not the blood of thy brother, but the bloods of thy brother is said, that is, his blood and the blood of his potential descendants.” (Sanhedrin 37a, 37-38.)

Over the past 2,000 years in particular, millions of Jews have been killed in Inquisitions, Pogroms, and more recently, the horror of the Holocaust. One wonders how much more humanity could have gained from the descendants of those murdered and their potential contributions to mankind.

Below is a short list of some of the most important contributions Jewish individuals have made to society.

Jewish Contributions to Society
Albert Einstein Physicist
Jonas Salk Created first Polio Vaccine.
Albert Sabin Developed the oral vaccine for Polio.
Galileo Discovered the speed of light
Selman Waksman Discovered Streptomycin. Coined the word 'antibiotic'.
Gabriel Lipmann Discovered color photography.
Baruch Blumberg Discovered origin and spread of infectious diseases.
G. Edelman Discovered chemical structure of antibodies.
Briton Epstein Identified first cancer virus.
Maria Meyer Structure of atomic nuclei.
Julius Mayer Discovered law of thermodynamics.
Sigmund Freud Father of Psychotherapy.
Christopher Columbus (Marano) Discovered the Americas.
Benjamin Disraeli Prime Minister of Great Britain 1804-1881
Isaac Singer Invented the sewing machine.
Levi Strauss Largest manufacturer of Denim Jeans.
Joseph Pulitzer Established 'Pulitzer Prize' for achievements in journalism, literature, music & art.

And the remnant of Jacob shall be in the midst of many peoples, as dew from the Lord, as showers upon the grass..." MICAH 5:6*

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REFLECTIONS ON JUDAISM AND THE JEWS
THE WHAT, WHY, & WHO OF THIS WEBSITE

The purpose of this website is to provide an online resource that accurately describes the Jewish contribution to the cultural, scientific, and technological evolution of civilization. Although there are scores of websites currently on the Internet that purport to characterize the Jews and their impact on the world, nearly all of them are sponsored by groups whose ultimate objectives vis-à-vis the Jews range from defamation to outright elimination. Many of the classic works of the anti-Semitic canon, once confined to the fever swamps, have become widely available via these websites, a few of which actually display legal disclaimers concerning their potential for incitement to "unlawful or criminal acts." (The composer Arnold Schoenberg once asked in this connection: "What is anti-Semitism to lead to if not acts of violence? Is it so difficult to imagine that?")

JINFO.ORG has no outside organizational affiliation or sponsorship. The website is an evolving project with new sections being added periodically. Statistical metrics are extensively employed because they are the most efficient technique for objectively summarizing and conveying an overall view of the large quantities of data involved.

Concerning Jewish identity, the vast majority (over 90%) of the individuals listed here as being Jewish are such by virtue of having had two Jewish parents. Also included, however, are individuals with one Jewish parent, as well as a number of Jews-by-choice, with the listings of individuals in the latter two categories qualified as such. In adopting this criterion for inclusion, we have followed the practice employed by the Jewish encyclopedias for more than a century.

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* The passage numbered Micah 5:6 in Jewish Bibles is numbered 5:7 in Christian Bibles.
JEWS IN THE MEDICAL & LIFE SCIENCES
JINFO.ORG
Prior to presenting his appeal to Oliver Cromwell for the readmission of the Jews, who had been expelled from England in 1290, Manasseh ben Israel wrote in The Hope of Israel 1: "Hence it may be seen that God hath not left us; for if one persecutes us, another receives us civilly and courteously; and if this prince treats us ill, another treats us well; if one banisheth us out of his country, another invites us with a thousand privileges ... and do we not see that those Republiques do flourish and much increase in trade who admit the Israelites?" But it was not for their economic prowess alone that the Jews were valued, it was for a whole host of skills, not the least of which was their expertise in the medical arts.

Winston Churchill, writing of the expulsion referred to above, states: "The Jews, held up to universal hatred, were pillaged, maltreated, and finally expelled from the realm. Exception was made for certain physicians without whose skill persons of consequence might have lacked due attention."2 Indeed, more often than not, the chief court physicians of the rulers of Europe were Jews or crypto-Jews. To cite but a few examples, Frederick III of the Holy Roman Empire, Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, Elizabeth I of England, Louis XIV of France, Catherine de Medici, and Catherine the Great of Russia all at one time or another employed Jewish personal physicians.3 Nor was it only the secular rulers of Christendom that depended on Jewish medical skills. As the Spanish philosopher and theologian Ramon Lull (Raymond Lully) complained in the thirteenth century: "Jews are universally entrusted by the great with the care of their health. Nor is the Church free from this abomination, for nearly every monastery has its Jewish physician."4 Among the many Popes who maintained Jewish personal physicians were Martin IV, Nicholas IV, Boniface VIII, Alexander VI, Julius II, Leo X, Clement VII, Paul III, Gregory XV, Urban VIII, and Innocent X.5

Much the same situation prevailed in Dar al-Islam, where, e.g., Maimonides served as court physician to Saladin the Great's Vizier Al-Fadhil and later to Saladin's son and successor. Jews also figured prominently as translators and transmitters to the Moslem world of the medical scholarship of the ancient Greeks, and would later play a similar role in transmitting to Europe the scholarship of Moslem physicians such as Avicenna. In the late Middle Ages, the Jews, numbering only about 1% of Europe's population, constituted roughly half of its physicians.6 During the last of the great European Jewish expulsions in the 1930s, the medical centers of Vienna and Berlin lost nearly half of their physicians and the majority of their medical school faculties.7 Many fled to America, helping to fuel its meteoric rise to preeminence in biomedical research; Jews have accounted for some 40% of US Nobel Prizes in medicine and constitute over one-third of the combined membership of the life sciences divisions of the US National Academy of Sciences and its affiliated Institute of Medicine.

The following links contain lists of prominent Jewish scientists and recipients of major international awards in the biomedical field. The last link below contains an analysis showing that of all the lives saved by all the scientific and medical advances in human history, more than three-fourths of those lives were saved by advances for which Jews constituted fifty percent or more of the principal developers.
Jewish Biomedical & Life Scientists
Jewish Recipients of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (27% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the Lasker Award in Basic Medical Research (32% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the Gairdner Foundation Awards (26% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the Wolf Prize in Medicine (41% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize (43% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the GM Cancer Research Foundation Sloan Prize (38% of recipients)
Jews Among the Creators of History's Greatest Lifesaving Medical & Scientific Advances (estimated 2.8 billion lives saved)
Some of the more notable Jewish contributions to the medical and biological sciences in the modern era are listed below. (The names of non-Jewish scientists mentioned in the accompanying discussion have been denoted with the superscript "+" in order to avoid confusion.)

The invention of local anesthesia by Carl Koller and the discovery of Novocaine by Alfred Einhorn.
The discovery that pancreatic dysfunction is the cause of diabetes by Oskar Minkowski (together with Joseph von Mering+) and the subsequent discovery that this dysfunction involves a deficiency in the hormonal secretions of the islets of Langerhans by Moses Barron. The work of the Canadian team that isolated insulin (Banting+, Best+, Collip+, and Macleod+) was based on these two prior discoveries.
The discovery of the ABO and other human blood groups and of the Rh factor by Karl Landsteiner. (The M, N, and P blood groups were co-discovered with Philip Levine and the Rh factor was co-discovered with Alexander Wiener). Landsteiner received the 1930 Nobel Prize for this work, which made safe blood transfusions possible for the first time. Landsteiner is also considered to be one of the giants of immunology, having made major contributions to the understanding of the chemical basis of antigen-antibody Jews, by Bernt Engelmann (Bantam, New York, 1984, pp. 59-60).
8. Billy Woodward et al., Scientists Greater than Einstein: The Biggest Lifesavers of the Twentieth Century (Linden, Chicago, 2009, pp. 315, 321).
9. Heynick, Jews and Medicine: An Epic Saga, p.461.
10. See http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1119266.
11. See profile of Michael S. Levine by Karen Hopkin in The Scientist (Vol. 21, No. 3, 2007, p. 58).
12. Endless Forms Most Beautiful: The New Science of Evo Devo, by Sean Carroll (W.W. Norton, New York, 2005, p. 9).
13. See Discovering the RNA Double Helix and Hybridization, by Alexander Varshavsky in Cell (Vol. 127, 29 December 2006, pp. 1295-1297).
14. The image reconstruction algorithm employed in all tomographic imaging is based on the Radon transform, which was invented by the Austrian mathematician Johann Radon+ in 1917. In his paper, Radon+ states that his result is based on the prior work of Hermann Minkowski and Paul Funk. Minkowski was the younger brother of the above-mentioned physiologist Oskar Minkowski. Paul Funk was a Czech-Jewish mathematician who survived internment in the Nazi concentration camp at Terezín (Theresienstadt). Gábor Frank obtained the first patents for x-ray tomographic scanning (1938 patents in both Hungary and Germany). Unlike Funk, he did not return from the camps. See Made in Hungary, by Andrew Simon (Simon Publications, Safety Harbor, FL, 1999, p. 266).
A Brief History
On June 19, 1269, the King of France, Louis IX, ordered that any Jew found in any public place not wearing the obligatory yellow badge would be fined 10 livres of silver. (Note: The livre was the monetary unit in France before 1795 when they came up with the franc. The word stems from the Latin word for “pound” and the original livre in 781 CE was 1 pound of silver.) People of Jewish faith or lineage have suffered discrimination and worse for many centuries. Meanwhile, many Jewish scientists, composers, educators, and artists of all types among others have enriched mankind. For example, 3 of the 7 justices on the US Supreme Court are Jewish. (Some of the inventions of Jews; safety razor, printed circuit board, cell phone, transistor, computer mouse, defibrillator, Esperanto, video tape, the Corvette, and the cotton swab.) Here we list 10 of the greatest contributions of people of Jewish background to the United States and the World. Who else would you include? (Note: The arbitrary order listed does not denote relative value of the contribution.)

Digging Deeper
10. Julius Fromm, Latex Condom.


With the loosening of sexual inhibitions after the prudish Victorian age, people obviously needed protection against unwanted pregnancy and disease. Condoms then were made of natural “skin” substances (animal intestines) and of rubber. The rubber condoms were made by wrapping layers of rubber around a mold and then cooking it. Fromm invented a way to make the latex liquid and manufacture the condoms by dipping a mold into the liquid. His invention was made in 1916, and the thinner, cheaper condom was a big success throughout Europe. He also invented the condom vending machine in 1928, leading to the gas station bathroom graffiti, “Don’t buy this gum, it tastes like rubber!”

9. Ruth Handler, Barbie Doll.


Ranking close to the Teddy Bear in the hearts of American children, Barbie has kept girls company since 1959. Handler and her husband were co-founders of Mattel (with Harold Matson) and were manufacturing plastic items such as picture frames when Ruth got the inspiration for Barbie from their daughter, Barbara. The invention of Barbie has made millions of little girls happy and millions of parents wondering where their money went when Barbie “needed” all those accessories.

8. Morris Michtom, Teddy Bear.


Taking inspiration from a cartoon of President Teddy Roosevelt showing a little bear mercy while hunting, Morris and his wife Rose created the Teddy Bear and turned it into an American icon. Cracked fact: Their daughter appeared in 40+ episodes of the television show, Get Smart as a background character.

7. Benjamin Disraeli, British Statesman.


Although born a Sephardic Jew, Disraeli’s father had his family switch to Anglican when Ben was 12, obviously to blend in to British society. (Anglican is the state religion of the United Kingdom.) Disraeli went on to a distinguished career in British politics, serving as Prime Minister and as Chancellor of the Exchequer, as well as a Conservative member of Parliament.

6. Laszlo Biro, Ball Point Pen.


Just think, before 1944 when this Hungarian Jew invented the ball point pen, there were no copy machines and the use of carbon paper to make handwritten copies must have been horrendous with a fountain pen. Smudge free writing and many times less likely to cause a laundry disaster than a fountain pen. Thanks Laszlo!

5. Claude Levi-Strauss, Anthropology.


No he did not invent blue jeans (probably wishes he did!). Claude is called the Father of Modern Anthropology for his work concerning structuralism and structural anthropology. He also studied mythology and applied his structuralist approach to that field. President of France (at the time) Nicolas Sarkozy called him “The greatest ethnologist of our time.” upon his death at age 100 in 2009. Born in Belgium, Levi-Strauss spent most of his life in France.

4. J. Robert Oppenheimer and Edward Teller, Nuclear Physics.


Whether you think nuclear weapons are a good thing or not, Oppenheimer is considered the Father of the Atomic Bomb and Teller is considered the Father of the Hydrogen Bomb. Both were born into Jewish families and both worked in the United States, although Teller was born in Hungary. The fact that these scientists enabled the US to be the first to get nuclear weapons may well have prevented a catastrophe for the Western world had the Soviets or Chinese gotten such weapons first.

3. Sanford “Sandy” Koufax, Baseball.


Born Sanford Braun, Koufax played only 11 years of big league baseball, but what spectacular years they were. He pitched 4 no hitters, struck out 2396 batters and had a career ERA of 2.76. Along with Nolan Ryan, Koufax is one of only two pitchers in the Hall of Fame that struck out more batters than innings they pitched. Amazing fact: In Koufax’s last year (1966) he was 27-9 with a 1.73 ERA! His salary for that fantastic season; a career high $125,000. Koufax famously refused to pitch a World Series game on Yom Kippur, a Jewish holy day.

2. Sigmund Schlomo Freud, Psychoanalysis.


This Austrian Jew is the Father of Psychoanalysis and as such greatly influenced those psychiatrists that came after him. His research and thinking is some of the most influential and insightful delving into the human mind of all time. Cracked fact: Freud thought that the fear of castration among males is provoked by uncircumcised boys seeing boys that are circumcised and as such this constitutes the root of anti-Semitism. Additionally, Freud thought that belief in God is an “illusion” and basically exists to calm man’s fear of “nature” and death.

1. Albert Einstein, Science.


Among other things, Einstein is most famous for his Special and General Theories of Relativity, and for his equation, E= MC2². Often referred to as the smartest man in history, Einstein was in the United States when Hitler and the Nazis took power in Germany where Einstein had been working as a professor in Berlin. Einstein chose to stay in the US as he rightly figured going back to Germany was suicidal. Fun facts: No one knows what Einstein’s last words were because he spoke them in German and no German speaking person was present. Recently discovered correspondence indicates that Einstein was probably an atheist, although he never said so publicly.

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What the Jewish people have done militarily for their tiny nation, has the respect of their allies , and their enemies alike.

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The development of the sodium citrate blood storage technique by Richard Lewisohn. Prior to Lewisohn's work in 1913, blood could not be stored and had to be transfused directly between donor and recipient. The use of sodium citrate as an anticoagulant, together with the use of refrigeration (introduced by Richard Weil), permitted creation of the first blood banks. Lewisohn and Karl Landsteiner (see above) are considered to be the two researchers most responsible for the invention of modern blood transfusion, which is estimated to have saved in excess of one billion lives since the 1950s alone, making it the single greatest lifesaving medical advance in history.8
The introduction of the side-chain theory of antibody formation by Paul Ehrlich, which has evolved into clonal selection theory, the central paradigm of modern immunology. Ehrlich shared the 1908 Nobel Prize with Élie Metchnikoff* for their independent contributions to immunology. Ehrlich is also considered to be the founder of modern chemotherapeutic medicine. His development of Salvarsan (1909) and Neosalvarsan (1911) constituted the first effective treatment for syphilis and, in the words of Sir Alexander Fleming+, "the beginning - and a magnificent beginning - of bacterial chemotherapy." 9
The isolation and development of penicillin by Sir Ernst Chain. Chain shared the 1945 Nobel Prize for this work with Sir Alexander Fleming+ and Sir Howard Florey+. It was Chain who recognized the potential of Fleming's+ nearly forgotten discovery of the antibacterial properties of Penicillium molds (one of many agents then known to have such properties). Chain, a biochemist, was able to isolate the active antibacterial substance, viz., penicillin, and to work out its molecular structure (later confirmed in the Nobel-Prize-winning x-ray diffraction work of Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin+). Using samples that Chain produced, Chain and Florey+ demonstrated penicillin's stability, nontoxicity, and effectiveness against staphylococcal, streptococcal, and clostridial infections in laboratory animals and humans.
The development of streptomycin by Selman Waksman and Albert Schatz. Waksman received the 1952 Nobel Prize for this work, which created the first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis, for which (in combination with other drugs) it remains a therapeutic mainstay.
The development of isoniazid by Herbert Fox and Harry Yale. Although isoniazid, the leading drug used in the treatment of tuberculosis since the mid-1950s, was first synthesized in 1912 by Josef Mally+ and Hans Leopold Meyer (who later died in the Nazi concentration camp at Terezín), its anti-tubercular properties were not discovered until the early 1950s, when it was independently re-synthesized and clinically explored by three separate groups. These were headed, respectively, by Fox at Hoffmann-La Roche, Yale at Squibb, and Gerhard Domagk+ at Bayer. Isoniazid, used early on in combination with streptomycin and a third drug, para-amino salicylic acid (PAS), and more recently in combination with other drugs, has saved over a hundred million lives since the 1950s. (PAS was developed by Jörgen Lehmann+ in Denmark, based on studies carried out by Frederick Bernheim in the US. In these studies, Bernheim established the metabolic role of salicylic acid in the tubercle bacillus. PAS is basically designed to interfere with these salicylate-dependant metabolic processes, ultimately impairing or killing the bacillus.) In a related, but separate development, iproniazid, an isoniazid derivative first synthesized by Fox in 1951 as a potential anti-tubercular agent, was found to have powerful anti-depressant effects. It subsequently became the basis for the MAOIs (mono-amine oxidase inhibitors) that revolutionized the treatment of clinical depression in the post-war period.
The isolation of cortisone by Tadeus Reichstein. Reichstein shared the 1950 Nobel Prize with Edward Kendall+ and Philip Hench+. Reichstein and Kendall+ were recognized for having independently isolated and characterized the hormones of the adrenal cortex, the most important of which was cortisone.
The chemical synthesis of cortisone by Lewis Sarett*, Max Tishler, and Carl Djerassi. Sarett, working under Tishler at Merck, achieved the first chemical synthesis of the compound. With subsequent improvements by Tishler, Sarett's synthesis made cortisone a commercially available drug for the first time. Further advances achieved independently by Djerassi and by Percy Julian+ made economically viable, large-scale production possible. Sarett, Tishler, and Djerassi were all awarded US National Medals of Science (in 1975, 1987, and 1973, respectively).
The development of aspirin by Arthur Eichengrun and Felix Hoffmann+. Aspirin is an artificially modified form of salicylic acid, a naturally occurring substance that can be obtained from the bark of willow trees, whose analgesic properties have been known since antiquity. Salicylic acid is, however, very poorly tolerated by the digestive system, which greatly limits its medicinal value. Early attempts to reduce its toxicity through acetylation failed to yield acetylsalicylic acid of sufficient purity to be medicinally useful. The first successful synthesis of pure acetylsalicylic acid was achieved in 1897 by Felix Hoffmann+, working at F. Bayer & Co. in Germany. Recently developed evidence indicates, however, that credit for this development should have gone equally, or even predominantly, to Hoffmann's+ Jewish supervisor, Arthur Eichengrun.10
The discovery of prostaglandins by M. W. Goldblatt. (Also discovered independently by Ulf von Euler+.) Sir John Vane* was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1982 for demonstrating that the anti-inflammatory and analgesic action of aspirin-like drugs was via their inhibition of prostaglandin production. Vane also discovered the vasodilator prostacyclin, which led directly to the development of the ACE inhibitors that are widely used in the treatment of hypertension, heart failure, and other vascular diseases. The development of the COX-2 selective inhibitors (such as the "super-aspirin" Celebrex, widely used by severe arthritis sufferers) was largely the work of Philip Needleman.
The discovery of neurotransmitters by Otto Loewi. Loewi shared the 1936 Nobel Prize with Sir Henry Dale+ for their independent work on acetylcholine. Sir Bernard Katz and Julius Axelrod shared the 1970 Nobel Prize with Ulf von Euler+ for advanced work on neurotransmitters. Their work led directly to the development of the class of anti-depressants that includes Prozac, Zoloft, and Paxil. Axelrod, together with Bernard Brodie, Leon Greenberg, and David Lester, was largely responsible for the development of the pain reliever acetaminophen (Tylenol).
The discovery of endorphins and enkephalins by Solomon Snyder and Hans Kosterlitz, respectively. The discovery by Snyder of the opioid receptors in the mammalian nervous system led to the further discovery of endorphins and enkephalins, endogenous opioids that help to control mood and pain. The opioid receptors play a large role in the action of pain killers such as morphine. This new understanding of opioid action has in turn led to the development of synthetic pain killing substitutes with diminished potential for addiction. Snyder and Kosterlitz shared the 1978 Lasker Award in Basic Medical Research for this work.
The discovery and characterization of growth factors by Rita Levi-Montalcini, Viktor Hamburger, and Stanley H. Cohen. Levi-Montalcini and Cohen shared the 1986 Nobel Prize for their identification and isolation of the nerve and epidermal growth factors, respectively. Growth factors (others of which were subsequently discovered) are protein molecular "signals" emitted by cells to control growth and differentiation in neighboring cells. Cohen also elucidated the biochemical pathways through which growth factors act after binding to receptors on the outer membranes of target cells. Growth factors play a large role in embryonic development and are thought to have potential medical application in nerve regeneration, accelerated wound healing, and in the understanding and control of tumor cell proliferation. The "blockbuster" drug Herceptin for treating breast and other cancers is based, in part, on Cohen's epidermal growth factor research.
The development of Warfarin (Coumadin) anticoagulant therapy by Shepard Shapiro. Warfarin is the most commonly used anticoagulant for the prevention of heart attacks and strokes. It is also one of the most widely prescribed medications in the world. It was discovered in 1946 by Karl Paul Link+, who developed it as a rat poison. Its identification and development for use in human anticoagulant therapy resulted from the work of Shapiro in the early 1950s. Previously, in the early 1940s, Shapiro had pioneered the clinical use of the anti-clotting agent methylene dicoumarin (dicoumarol), which was also discovered by Link+.
The development of oral contraceptives by Gregory Pincus, Carl Djerassi, and Frank Colton.
The development of the Salk and Sabin polio vaccines by Jonas Salk and Albert Sabin, respectively. The resulting worldwide near-eradication of polio is estimated to be preventing over one-half million new cases of lifelong paralysis each year. The discovery that the causative agent in polio was, in fact, a virus was made in 1908 by Karl Landsteiner and Erwin Popper.
The development of the hepatitis-B vaccine by Baruch Blumberg and Irving Millman. Blumberg received the 1976 Nobel Prize, in part for this work, which has saved an estimated six-to-seven million lives.
The co-discovery of interferon by Alick Isaacs (in collaboration with Jean Lindenmann+). The large-scale production of recombinant interferon for medical use (a market currently in excess of $15 billion annually) is based largely on the work of Charles Weissmann and Sidney Pestka. Pestka received the US National Medal of Technology in 2001. Interferons are widely used in the treatment of multiple sclerosis, leukemias and lymphomas, melanomas, and hepatitis B and C.
The co-invention of monoclonal antibodies by César Milstein. Milstein shared the 1984 Nobel Prize with Georges Köhler+ for this work. Four of the top ten "blockbuster" anti-cancer drugs, including the top three, are now based on monoclonal antibody technology. The development of all four drugs was based on the application of this research to other research conducted by Jewish scientists. Specifically, Rituxan is based on the non-Hodgkin's lymphoma research of Ronald Levy; Avastin is based on the angiogenesis research pioneered by Judah Folkman; Herceptin is based on the the epidermal growth factor research of Stanley H. Cohen and the HER-2/neu protein research of Robert Weinberg, Jeffrey Drebin, and Mark Greene; and Erbitux is based on research by Michael Sela and John Mendelsohn. The combined annual sales of these four drugs are in excess of $20 billion. (Of the remaining six "small molecule" drugs among the top ten blockbuster anti-cancer agents, at least two are based on the research of Jewish scientists. Specifically, Velcade is based on work by Julian Adams, Avram Hershko, Alexander Varshavsky, Aaron Ciechanover, and Irwin Rose; and Gleevec is based, in part, on the research of Brian Druker.)
The invention of cancer chemotherapy by Louis Goodman, Alfred Gilman, and Sidney Farber. In the early 1940s, Goodman and Gilman discovered the effectiveness of mechlorethamine ("nitrogen mustard") in the treatment of lymphatic malignancies. In the late 1940s, Farber produced the first chemically induced remissions from leukemia using the folic acid inhibitors aminopterin and methotrexate. Eventually mechlorethamine and methotrexate, used in combination with other anti-cancer agents (mechlorethamine is the "M" in MOPP) and radiation, would lead to cures for many previously fatal lymphomas and leukemias, respectively.
The co-development of 6-MP (6-mercaptopurine) by Gertrude Elion, which used in combination with methotrexate and other drugs, has led to cures for most forms of childhood leukemia. Elion was also the co-developer of azathioprine (Imuran), the immunosuppressant that made organ transplants possible between individuals other than identical twins, and of acyclovir (Zovirax) for the treatment of herpes viral infections. Elion and George Hitchings+ received the 1988 Nobel Prize for their joint work.
The discovery and development of cisplatin by Barnett Rosenberg, which has led to a complete reversal in the prognosis for testicular cancer, a malignancy that had almost always been fatal and is now roughly 90% curable. The chemotherapeutic protocols for the use of cisplatin in the treatment and cure of testicular cancer were developed by Lawrence Einhorn (who supervised the successful treatment of Tour de France champion Lance Armstrong+).
The revolutionizing of radiation oncology by Henry Kaplan. Kaplan, the long-time head of radiology at Stanford Medical School, introduced the use of megavolt x-ray therapy in the 1950s, using linear accelerators (LINACs) to generate the required high-energy radiation. The medical LINAC is now the primary tool used in radiation oncology worldwide. Since the 1950s, an estimated forty million cancer patients have received such radiation treatments. (Currently about half of all cancer patients receive radiotherapy, primarily from LINAC-generated x-rays.) Even more significantly, Kaplan and his associates demonstrated that radiotherapy could be employed as a curative, rather than a merely palliative, cancer treatment. By the late 1970s, using radiotherapy protocols largely developed by Kaplan and his group, cure rates of 70%-80% were being achieved in patients with early-stage Hodgkin's lymphoma, which had previously been a uniformly fatal disease. Kaplan and Saul Rosenberg were the first to apply chemotherapy as an adjunct to radiation therapy in Hodgkin's disease, their regimens achieving initial cure rates in the late 1970s of 30%-40% in late-stage Hodgkin's disease. (With subsequent dramatic improvements in chemotherapy, the primary and secondary roles of radiation and chemotherapy have been reversed; cure rates are now 98% in early-stage Hodgkin's disease and 85% in advanced disease.) Kaplan and his associates were also responsible for the clinical trial studies that established the utility of the histopathologic classification scheme for non-Hodgkin's lymphomas proposed by Henry Rappaport in 1956. Although not widely accepted at the time, the Rappaport classification (with subsequent modifications) has become the most widely used in the staging and treatment of non-Hodgkin's lymphomas. For his pioneering work in radiation oncology, Kaplan became in 1969 the only biomedical scientist to be awarded the prestigious Atoms for Peace Award.
The co-discovery of oncogenes by Harold Varmus and the elucidation of their role in human cancer by Robert Weinberg, Michael Wigler, Bert Vogelstein, Arnold Levine, and others. Varmus shared the 1989 Nobel Prize with Michael Bishop+ for this work.
The discovery of retroviruses and their associated reverse transcriptase enzyme by David Baltimore and Howard Temin. Baltimore and Temin shared the 1975 Nobel Prize for their independent discovery of these viruses, which are implicated in AIDS and in some cancers, and whose existence disproved the "central dogma" of molecular biology.
The development of AZT, protease inhibitors, and other drugs used in the treatment of AIDS by Jerome Horwitz, Samuel Broder, and Irving Sigal. AZT (Retrovir), which was originally synthesized by Horwitz for use as an anti-cancer agent, proved to be the first of the reverse transcriptase inhibitors found effective against HIV. Its identification as such in clinical trials was largely the result of efforts led by Broder, who also co-developed two other reverse transcriptase inhibitors (ddl and ddC). Sigal, who was senior director of molecular biology at Merck prior to his death in the 1988 bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland, was the first to demonstrate the effectiveness of protease inhibitors against HIV. Used in combination, the various reverse transcriptase and protease inhibitors have dramatically improved the outlook for AIDS patients.
The elucidation of the biochemistry of cellular metabolism by Otto Warburg*, Otto Meyerhof, Gustav Embden, Jacob Parnas, Sir Hans Krebs, Fritz Lipmann, Herman Kalckar, Carl Neuberg, Gerty Cori, Konrad Bloch, and others. This includes much of the basic work on glycolysis (Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway), the urea and citric acid cycles (Krebs cycles), the pentose phosphate pathway, and oxidative phosphorylation and the role of ATP, as well as significant contributions to the characterization of glycogen and fatty acid metabolism. Warburg, Meyerhof, Krebs, Lipmann, Cori, and Bloch all received Nobel Prizes.
The invention of radioisotopic tracer techniques by George de Hevesy, Friedrich Paneth, Rudolf Schoenheimer, David Rittenberg, Martin Kamen, William Hassid, and Samuel Ruben. Hevesy and Paneth introduced the general technique, for which Hevesy won the 1943 Nobel Prize in chemistry; Kamen and Ruben discovered the long-lived carbon-14 radioisotope, which has had widespread application in biology (and is also the basis of radiocarbon dating). Melvin Calvin employed carbon-14 to elucidate the so-called dark reactions of photosynthesis, for which he was awarded the 1961 Nobel Prize in chemistry. (Others who made major contributions to the understanding of photosynthesis include the physicist George Feher and the Nobel laureates James Franck, Richard Willstätter, and Otto Warburg*.)
The invention of radioimmunoassay by Rosalyn Yalow and Solomon Berson, which has revolutionized clinical and research practice in such fields as endocrinology and blood banking. The technique, which can be made exquisitely sensitive to trace amounts (nano- and pico-molar concentrations) of specific blood substances, is employed in measuring the levels of most hormones, screening donated blood for hepatitis-B virus, and in allergy and drug level testing. Yalow received the Nobel Prize in 1977 for this work. (Berson died in 1972.)
The determination of key components of the experimental basis for the double helix model of DNA by Phoebus Levene, Erwin Chargaff, and Rosalind Franklin. In 1929, Levene discovered that DNA contains a sugar called deoxyribose and that it consists of a chain of what he termed "nucleotides," units composed of the deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate group, and one of four purine or pyrimidine bases. (The purine and pyrimidine molecular base constituents of DNA were discovered by the German biochemist Albrecht Kossel+.) Levene incorrectly concluded that all four bases were present in equal proportions. Chargaff, however, showed that the four bases were, in fact, present in specific pairwise ratios ([adenine]=[thymine] =/= [guanine]=[cytosine]), implying both structural base pairing and base coding of the genetic information. Finally, Rosalind Franklin's x-ray crystallographic studies of DNA provided the clear evidence for a double helical structure. The theoretical model of Watson+ and Crick+ was largely based on the experimental data provided by the aforementioned chemical and structural analyses.
The breaking of the genetic code by Marshall Nirenberg. Nirenberg and Har Gobind Khorana+ shared the 1968 Nobel Prize for their independent determinations of the code.
The co-discovery of the basic mechanisms of gene regulation by François Jacob, Walter Gilbert, Mark Ptashne, Andrew Fire, Gary Ruvkun, Howard Cedar, Aharon Razin, Michael Grunstein, and Michael Levine. Jacob shared the 1965 Nobel Prize with Jacques Monod+ for their joint work on the development of the operon-repressor model of gene regulation, which was experimentally confirmed by Gilbert, who isolated the lac operon repressor (but whose 1980 Nobel Prize in chemistry was in recognition of other work), and by Ptashne, whose exploration of the phage lambda switch greatly elucidated the process by which regulatory proteins (repressors) switch on and off gene expression. Fire co-discovered RNA interference, an RNA-based gene control process, for which he shared a Nobel Prize in 2006. A second RNA-based gene control mechanism involving short strands of RNA called microRNA was co-discovered by Ruvkun. Cedar and Razin shared the 2008 Wolf Prize in Medicine for their role in the discovery of DNA methylation, which together with histone modification, co-discovered by Grunstein, forms the basis of the new field of epigenetics, which deals with the molecular mechanisms involved in gene activation and suppression by environmental influences. Levine's work on the organization and function of the homeobox genes (which he co-discovered) "has done for animal development what the work on the lac operon and phage lambda did for understanding gene regulation in simpler organisms."11 The discovery of these master genes and their role in development has "shattered our previous notions of animal relationships and of what made animals different, and opened up a whole new way of looking at evolution."12
The discovery of RNA and major contributions to the elucidation of its structure and function by Phoebus Levene, François Jacob, Sydney Brenner, Matthew Meselson, Sol Spiegelman, Sidney Altman, Sir Aaron Klug, Alexander Rich, Leslie Orgel, Andrew Fire, Gary Ruvkun, Roger Kornberg, Ada Yonath, and others. RNA was first identified as a nucleic acid distinct from DNA by Levene in the course of his seminal studies of the nucleic acids in the early part of the twentieth century. The concept of messenger RNA (mRNA) as an information-bearing DNA-to-ribosome intermediary in protein synthesis was first formulated by Jacob and Jacques Monod+ in 1961 and subsequently verified in experiments conducted by Brenner, Jacob, Meselson, and Spiegelman. The surprising catalytic properties of RNA were independently discovered by Altman and by Thomas Cech+, supporting the concept of a pre-biotic "RNA world," first proposed in 1963 by Rich and, independently a few years later, by Orgel and others. Definitive x-ray diffraction studies of RNA structure were first carried out independently by Klug and by Rich. Rich co-discovered double helical RNA and went on to discover the more general process of nucleic acid hybridization, whose further development would "become the technical foundation of modern molecular biology."13 Nucleic acid hybridization, e.g., lies at the heart of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which has revolutionized molecular biological research practice. Double helical RNA has recently been found to play a role in the control of gene expression in a process called RNA interference (RNAi), which was co-discovered by Fire. Another RNA control process regulating gene expression that involves very short, single-stranded RNA molecules called microRNA (miRNA) was co-discovered by Ruvkun. In recent years, sophisticated x-ray crystallographic analyses using synchrotron radiation sources were developed and employed by Kornberg to elucidate the structural dynamics of RNA-polymerase-directed DNA-to-mRNA transcription. Cryo-crystallographic and synchrotron radiation techniques were also developed and used by Ada Yonath to elucidate the structural dynamics of the process of translation, i.e., ribosomal protein synthesis, which involves mRNA, rRNA (ribosomal RNA), and tRNA (transfer RNA). These studies have revealed the ribosome to be, in fact, a very complex ribozyme (RNA enzyme). Jacob, Brenner, Altman, Klug, Fire, Kornberg, and Yonath were all awarded Nobel Prizes. Rich received the US National Medal of Science in 1995.
The co-invention of gene splicing by Stanley N. Cohen. Cohen and Herbert Boyer's+ invention opened up the new field of genetic engineering. Cohen and Boyer+ were recipients of both the US National Medal of Science and the US National Medal of Technology. The latter award cited them "for their fundamental discovery of gene splicing techniques allowing replication in quantity of biomedically important new products, and beneficially transformed plant materials. This discovery of recombinant DNA technology has transformed the basic science of molecular biology and the biotechnology industry." Other major contributors to genetic engineering include Paul Berg, Walter Gilbert, and Daniel Nathans, all of whom received Nobel Prizes for their work.
The discovery of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) by I. I. Rabi. Rabi received the 1944 Nobel Prize in physics for the demonstration of NMR in molecular beams. Felix Bloch shared the 1952 Nobel Prize in physics with Edward Purcell+ for their independent inventions of condensed matter NMR spectroscopy, which is important in biomolecular structure studies, as well as being the basis of the MRI diagnostic imaging technique.14
The invention of the flexible endoscope by Basil Hirschowitz, which has revolutionized surgery by greatly reducing the complexity and invasiveness of many surgical procedures. (This work, undertaken in the mid-1950s, led to the production of the first glass-clad optical fibers, which later revolutionized modern telecommunications.)
The co-invention of LASIK eye surgery by Samuel Blum (together with Rangaswamy Srinivasan+ and James Wynne+).
The invention of phacoemulsification cataract surgery by Charles Kelman, which is the technique most widely used for cataract removal worldwide. More than two hundred million such operations have been performed. It has revolutionized the procedure by completely eliminating the need for hospitalization, which had previously averaged one week. Kelman was a recipient of both the US National Medal of Technology in 1992 and the Lasker Award for Clinical Medical Research in 2004 (posthumously).
The invention of the cardiac defibrillator, external pacemaker, and cardiac monitor by Paul Zoll. Zoll (and, independently, Wilson Greatbatch+ ) later invented the implantable cardiac pacemaker. Michel Mirowski and Morton Mower were two of the four inventors of the automatic, implantable cardiac defibrillator.
The invention of the Heimlich Maneuver by Henry Heimlich.
The co-invention of the basic technique used worldwide for the controlled chlorination of drinking water supplies by Abel Wolman. Wolman and Linn Enslow's+ invention resulted in a dramatic reduction in the incidence of such waterborne diseases as cholera, dysentery, and typhoid fever; as such, it was arguably the single most important contribution to public health in the twentieth century. The number of lives thereby saved has been variously estimated as running into the hundreds of millions. Wolman received both the Lasker Award for Public Service in 1960 and the US National Medal of Science in 1974. The Abel Wolman Municipal Building, one of the largest buildings in Baltimore, MD (where he taught at Johns Hopkins), was named in his honor.
NOTES
1. Manasseh ben Israel, The Hope of Israel (London, 1652), reprinted in Manasseh ben Israel's Mission to Oliver Cromwell, edited by Lucien Wolf (London, 1901, pp. 50-51).
2. Winston Churchill, History of the English-Speaking Peoples, Vol. 1 (Cassell, London, 1956).
3. Frank Heynick, Jews and Medicine: An Epic Saga (KTAV, Hoboken, NJ, 2002).
4. Ibid., p. 123.
5. Ibid., pp. 124,130-131.
6. Ibid., p. 13.
7. For statistics on Vienna, see Vienna and the Jews, 1867-1938: A Cultural History, by Steven Beller (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1989, pp. 36-
37); on Berlin, see
Germany Without
Doesn't explain the bacon situation.

[Berries]

w. Saw your avatar and was a bit taken aback. One of our more interesting members used it a few years back.

You mean while I have been incarcerated, (I didnt kill them honestly) :laugh:and undergone years of rectal prodding in the showers, someone stole my AVATAR!:2guns:

I did see a brief mention of The Jewish Culture on here.

I do not subscribe to anti semanticism, anti-semitic Ideology.

My reasoning is that I have studied history, & Jewish History, and their is no doubt they are our creators, (whoever you wish to call him) chosen people.

The Jewish people make up Under 1% of the worlds population, yet their contributions to Human Kind is HUGE.

A dear and now passed on, friend and colleague, "Steve" AKA JAWS, as a young Pilot officer saw service in the last months of world war two, he was detailed to fly politicians and those accused of war crimes, he and his mates went to the camps of extermination and visited to look at the accused of these horrendous crimes, he said they looked just like you and me, He could not figure out what had gone on in their head.

When they saw the "Bitch of Bergen-Belsen" we wanted to see how ugly this bitch "Irma Grese" was and we took bets as to who amongst us would do her if able! (young guys in their late teens/early 20's).

When they were taken to see her, she was used to having visits from such as Jaws and his mates, out of human interest, she did not like it, she apparently screamed, and nutted off that the polish guard entered her cell, punched her, threw her to the ground, then kicked her with his hobbed boats in the ribs so hard they heard the crack:

He/ dear old Steve, said he still dreamt of this ugly cow and her pure hatred, it shocked and scared him and his mates, (no one did her:laugh:)

They went along to watch her Hang instead.

Have a read if you wish, I leave it to you to form your own opinion.

y Luana Goriss
Updated July 03, 2017
Considering that the Jewish people constitute a mere one-half of one percent of the world's population, Jewish contributions to religion, science, literature, music, medicine, finance, philosophy, entertainment etc., is staggering.

In the field of medicine alone, Jewish contributions are staggering and continue to be so. It was a Jew who created the first polio vaccine, who discovered insulin, who discovered that aspirin dealt with pain, who discovered chloral hydrate for convulsions, who discovered streptomycin, who discovered the origin and spread of infectious diseases, who invented the test for diagnosis of syphilis, who identified the first cancer virus, who discovered the cure for pellagra and added to the knowledge about yellow fever, typhoid, typhus, measles, diphtheria and influenza.

Today, Israel, a nation only sixty years old, has emerged at the forefront of stem-cell research, which will, in the near future, give humanity unprecedented medical treatment for degenerative diseases.

There is a passage in the Talmud that says: “We find in the case of Cain, who killed his brother, that it is written: The bloods of thy brother cry unto me: not the blood of thy brother, but the bloods of thy brother is said, that is, his blood and the blood of his potential descendants.” (Sanhedrin 37a, 37-38.)

Over the past 2,000 years in particular, millions of Jews have been killed in Inquisitions, Pogroms, and more recently, the horror of the Holocaust. One wonders how much more humanity could have gained from the descendants of those murdered and their potential contributions to mankind.

Below is a short list of some of the most important contributions Jewish individuals have made to society.

Jewish Contributions to Society
Albert Einstein Physicist
Jonas Salk Created first Polio Vaccine.
Albert Sabin Developed the oral vaccine for Polio.
Galileo Discovered the speed of light
Selman Waksman Discovered Streptomycin. Coined the word 'antibiotic'.
Gabriel Lipmann Discovered color photography.
Baruch Blumberg Discovered origin and spread of infectious diseases.
G. Edelman Discovered chemical structure of antibodies.
Briton Epstein Identified first cancer virus.
Maria Meyer Structure of atomic nuclei.
Julius Mayer Discovered law of thermodynamics.
Sigmund Freud Father of Psychotherapy.
Christopher Columbus (Marano) Discovered the Americas.
Benjamin Disraeli Prime Minister of Great Britain 1804-1881
Isaac Singer Invented the sewing machine.
Levi Strauss Largest manufacturer of Denim Jeans.
Joseph Pulitzer Established 'Pulitzer Prize' for achievements in journalism, literature, music & art.

And the remnant of Jacob shall be in the midst of many peoples, as dew from the Lord, as showers upon the grass..." MICAH 5:6*

JEWISH NOBEL PRIZE WINNERS
CHEMISTRY
ECONOMICS
LITERATURE
MEDICINE
PEACE
PHYSICS
JEWS IN ANTHROPOLOGY
JEWS IN BIOMEDICAL SCIENCE
JEWS IN CHEMISTRY
JEWS IN CHESS
JEWS IN COMPUTER & INFORMATION SCIENCE
JEWS IN ECONOMICS
JEWS IN LINGUISTICS
JEWS IN LITERATURE
JEWS IN MATHEMATICS
JEWS IN MUSIC
JEWS IN PHILOSOPHY
JEWS IN PHYSICS
JEWS IN PSYCHOLOGY
JEWS IN SOCIOLOGY
REFLECTIONS ON JUDAISM AND THE JEWS
THE WHAT, WHY, & WHO OF THIS WEBSITE

The purpose of this website is to provide an online resource that accurately describes the Jewish contribution to the cultural, scientific, and technological evolution of civilization. Although there are scores of websites currently on the Internet that purport to characterize the Jews and their impact on the world, nearly all of them are sponsored by groups whose ultimate objectives vis-à-vis the Jews range from defamation to outright elimination. Many of the classic works of the anti-Semitic canon, once confined to the fever swamps, have become widely available via these websites, a few of which actually display legal disclaimers concerning their potential for incitement to "unlawful or criminal acts." (The composer Arnold Schoenberg once asked in this connection: "What is anti-Semitism to lead to if not acts of violence? Is it so difficult to imagine that?")

JINFO.ORG has no outside organizational affiliation or sponsorship. The website is an evolving project with new sections being added periodically. Statistical metrics are extensively employed because they are the most efficient technique for objectively summarizing and conveying an overall view of the large quantities of data involved.

Concerning Jewish identity, the vast majority (over 90%) of the individuals listed here as being Jewish are such by virtue of having had two Jewish parents. Also included, however, are individuals with one Jewish parent, as well as a number of Jews-by-choice, with the listings of individuals in the latter two categories qualified as such. In adopting this criterion for inclusion, we have followed the practice employed by the Jewish encyclopedias for more than a century.

CONTACT JINFO.ORG

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Reproduction of any part of this website
without the express, prior written permission of JINFO.ORG is prohibited.

* The passage numbered Micah 5:6 in Jewish Bibles is numbered 5:7 in Christian Bibles.
JEWS IN THE MEDICAL & LIFE SCIENCES
JINFO.ORG
Prior to presenting his appeal to Oliver Cromwell for the readmission of the Jews, who had been expelled from England in 1290, Manasseh ben Israel wrote in The Hope of Israel 1: "Hence it may be seen that God hath not left us; for if one persecutes us, another receives us civilly and courteously; and if this prince treats us ill, another treats us well; if one banisheth us out of his country, another invites us with a thousand privileges ... and do we not see that those Republiques do flourish and much increase in trade who admit the Israelites?" But it was not for their economic prowess alone that the Jews were valued, it was for a whole host of skills, not the least of which was their expertise in the medical arts.

Winston Churchill, writing of the expulsion referred to above, states: "The Jews, held up to universal hatred, were pillaged, maltreated, and finally expelled from the realm. Exception was made for certain physicians without whose skill persons of consequence might have lacked due attention."2 Indeed, more often than not, the chief court physicians of the rulers of Europe were Jews or crypto-Jews. To cite but a few examples, Frederick III of the Holy Roman Empire, Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, Elizabeth I of England, Louis XIV of France, Catherine de Medici, and Catherine the Great of Russia all at one time or another employed Jewish personal physicians.3 Nor was it only the secular rulers of Christendom that depended on Jewish medical skills. As the Spanish philosopher and theologian Ramon Lull (Raymond Lully) complained in the thirteenth century: "Jews are universally entrusted by the great with the care of their health. Nor is the Church free from this abomination, for nearly every monastery has its Jewish physician."4 Among the many Popes who maintained Jewish personal physicians were Martin IV, Nicholas IV, Boniface VIII, Alexander VI, Julius II, Leo X, Clement VII, Paul III, Gregory XV, Urban VIII, and Innocent X.5

Much the same situation prevailed in Dar al-Islam, where, e.g., Maimonides served as court physician to Saladin the Great's Vizier Al-Fadhil and later to Saladin's son and successor. Jews also figured prominently as translators and transmitters to the Moslem world of the medical scholarship of the ancient Greeks, and would later play a similar role in transmitting to Europe the scholarship of Moslem physicians such as Avicenna. In the late Middle Ages, the Jews, numbering only about 1% of Europe's population, constituted roughly half of its physicians.6 During the last of the great European Jewish expulsions in the 1930s, the medical centers of Vienna and Berlin lost nearly half of their physicians and the majority of their medical school faculties.7 Many fled to America, helping to fuel its meteoric rise to preeminence in biomedical research; Jews have accounted for some 40% of US Nobel Prizes in medicine and constitute over one-third of the combined membership of the life sciences divisions of the US National Academy of Sciences and its affiliated Institute of Medicine.

The following links contain lists of prominent Jewish scientists and recipients of major international awards in the biomedical field. The last link below contains an analysis showing that of all the lives saved by all the scientific and medical advances in human history, more than three-fourths of those lives were saved by advances for which Jews constituted fifty percent or more of the principal developers.
Jewish Biomedical & Life Scientists
Jewish Recipients of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (27% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the Lasker Award in Basic Medical Research (32% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the Gairdner Foundation Awards (26% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the Wolf Prize in Medicine (41% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize (43% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the GM Cancer Research Foundation Sloan Prize (38% of recipients)
Jews Among the Creators of History's Greatest Lifesaving Medical & Scientific Advances (estimated 2.8 billion lives saved)
Some of the more notable Jewish contributions to the medical and biological sciences in the modern era are listed below. (The names of non-Jewish scientists mentioned in the accompanying discussion have been denoted with the superscript "+" in order to avoid confusion.)

The invention of local anesthesia by Carl Koller and the discovery of Novocaine by Alfred Einhorn.
The discovery that pancreatic dysfunction is the cause of diabetes by Oskar Minkowski (together with Joseph von Mering+) and the subsequent discovery that this dysfunction involves a deficiency in the hormonal secretions of the islets of Langerhans by Moses Barron. The work of the Canadian team that isolated insulin (Banting+, Best+, Collip+, and Macleod+) was based on these two prior discoveries.
The discovery of the ABO and other human blood groups and of the Rh factor by Karl Landsteiner. (The M, N, and P blood groups were co-discovered with Philip Levine and the Rh factor was co-discovered with Alexander Wiener). Landsteiner received the 1930 Nobel Prize for this work, which made safe blood transfusions possible for the first time. Landsteiner is also considered to be one of the giants of immunology, having made major contributions to the understanding of the chemical basis of antigen-antibody Jews, by Bernt Engelmann (Bantam, New York, 1984, pp. 59-60).
8. Billy Woodward et al., Scientists Greater than Einstein: The Biggest Lifesavers of the Twentieth Century (Linden, Chicago, 2009, pp. 315, 321).
9. Heynick, Jews and Medicine: An Epic Saga, p.461.
10. See http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1119266.
11. See profile of Michael S. Levine by Karen Hopkin in The Scientist (Vol. 21, No. 3, 2007, p. 58).
12. Endless Forms Most Beautiful: The New Science of Evo Devo, by Sean Carroll (W.W. Norton, New York, 2005, p. 9).
13. See Discovering the RNA Double Helix and Hybridization, by Alexander Varshavsky in Cell (Vol. 127, 29 December 2006, pp. 1295-1297).
14. The image reconstruction algorithm employed in all tomographic imaging is based on the Radon transform, which was invented by the Austrian mathematician Johann Radon+ in 1917. In his paper, Radon+ states that his result is based on the prior work of Hermann Minkowski and Paul Funk. Minkowski was the younger brother of the above-mentioned physiologist Oskar Minkowski. Paul Funk was a Czech-Jewish mathematician who survived internment in the Nazi concentration camp at Terezín (Theresienstadt). Gábor Frank obtained the first patents for x-ray tomographic scanning (1938 patents in both Hungary and Germany). Unlike Funk, he did not return from the camps. See Made in Hungary, by Andrew Simon (Simon Publications, Safety Harbor, FL, 1999, p. 266).
A Brief History
On June 19, 1269, the King of France, Louis IX, ordered that any Jew found in any public place not wearing the obligatory yellow badge would be fined 10 livres of silver. (Note: The livre was the monetary unit in France before 1795 when they came up with the franc. The word stems from the Latin word for “pound” and the original livre in 781 CE was 1 pound of silver.) People of Jewish faith or lineage have suffered discrimination and worse for many centuries. Meanwhile, many Jewish scientists, composers, educators, and artists of all types among others have enriched mankind. For example, 3 of the 7 justices on the US Supreme Court are Jewish. (Some of the inventions of Jews; safety razor, printed circuit board, cell phone, transistor, computer mouse, defibrillator, Esperanto, video tape, the Corvette, and the cotton swab.) Here we list 10 of the greatest contributions of people of Jewish background to the United States and the World. Who else would you include? (Note: The arbitrary order listed does not denote relative value of the contribution.)

Digging Deeper
10. Julius Fromm, Latex Condom.


With the loosening of sexual inhibitions after the prudish Victorian age, people obviously needed protection against unwanted pregnancy and disease. Condoms then were made of natural “skin” substances (animal intestines) and of rubber. The rubber condoms were made by wrapping layers of rubber around a mold and then cooking it. Fromm invented a way to make the latex liquid and manufacture the condoms by dipping a mold into the liquid. His invention was made in 1916, and the thinner, cheaper condom was a big success throughout Europe. He also invented the condom vending machine in 1928, leading to the gas station bathroom graffiti, “Don’t buy this gum, it tastes like rubber!”

9. Ruth Handler, Barbie Doll.


Ranking close to the Teddy Bear in the hearts of American children, Barbie has kept girls company since 1959. Handler and her husband were co-founders of Mattel (with Harold Matson) and were manufacturing plastic items such as picture frames when Ruth got the inspiration for Barbie from their daughter, Barbara. The invention of Barbie has made millions of little girls happy and millions of parents wondering where their money went when Barbie “needed” all those accessories.

8. Morris Michtom, Teddy Bear.


Taking inspiration from a cartoon of President Teddy Roosevelt showing a little bear mercy while hunting, Morris and his wife Rose created the Teddy Bear and turned it into an American icon. Cracked fact: Their daughter appeared in 40+ episodes of the television show, Get Smart as a background character.

7. Benjamin Disraeli, British Statesman.


Although born a Sephardic Jew, Disraeli’s father had his family switch to Anglican when Ben was 12, obviously to blend in to British society. (Anglican is the state religion of the United Kingdom.) Disraeli went on to a distinguished career in British politics, serving as Prime Minister and as Chancellor of the Exchequer, as well as a Conservative member of Parliament.

6. Laszlo Biro, Ball Point Pen.


Just think, before 1944 when this Hungarian Jew invented the ball point pen, there were no copy machines and the use of carbon paper to make handwritten copies must have been horrendous with a fountain pen. Smudge free writing and many times less likely to cause a laundry disaster than a fountain pen. Thanks Laszlo!

5. Claude Levi-Strauss, Anthropology.


No he did not invent blue jeans (probably wishes he did!). Claude is called the Father of Modern Anthropology for his work concerning structuralism and structural anthropology. He also studied mythology and applied his structuralist approach to that field. President of France (at the time) Nicolas Sarkozy called him “The greatest ethnologist of our time.” upon his death at age 100 in 2009. Born in Belgium, Levi-Strauss spent most of his life in France.

4. J. Robert Oppenheimer and Edward Teller, Nuclear Physics.


Whether you think nuclear weapons are a good thing or not, Oppenheimer is considered the Father of the Atomic Bomb and Teller is considered the Father of the Hydrogen Bomb. Both were born into Jewish families and both worked in the United States, although Teller was born in Hungary. The fact that these scientists enabled the US to be the first to get nuclear weapons may well have prevented a catastrophe for the Western world had the Soviets or Chinese gotten such weapons first.

3. Sanford “Sandy” Koufax, Baseball.


Born Sanford Braun, Koufax played only 11 years of big league baseball, but what spectacular years they were. He pitched 4 no hitters, struck out 2396 batters and had a career ERA of 2.76. Along with Nolan Ryan, Koufax is one of only two pitchers in the Hall of Fame that struck out more batters than innings they pitched. Amazing fact: In Koufax’s last year (1966) he was 27-9 with a 1.73 ERA! His salary for that fantastic season; a career high $125,000. Koufax famously refused to pitch a World Series game on Yom Kippur, a Jewish holy day.

2. Sigmund Schlomo Freud, Psychoanalysis.


This Austrian Jew is the Father of Psychoanalysis and as such greatly influenced those psychiatrists that came after him. His research and thinking is some of the most influential and insightful delving into the human mind of all time. Cracked fact: Freud thought that the fear of castration among males is provoked by uncircumcised boys seeing boys that are circumcised and as such this constitutes the root of anti-Semitism. Additionally, Freud thought that belief in God is an “illusion” and basically exists to calm man’s fear of “nature” and death.

1. Albert Einstein, Science.


Among other things, Einstein is most famous for his Special and General Theories of Relativity, and for his equation, E= MC2². Often referred to as the smartest man in history, Einstein was in the United States when Hitler and the Nazis took power in Germany where Einstein had been working as a professor in Berlin. Einstein chose to stay in the US as he rightly figured going back to Germany was suicidal. Fun facts: No one knows what Einstein’s last words were because he spoke them in German and no German speaking person was present. Recently discovered correspondence indicates that Einstein was probably an atheist, although he never said so publicly.

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What the Jewish people have done militarily for their tiny nation, has the respect of their allies , and their enemies alike.

:Offtopic:
interaction.
The development of the sodium citrate blood storage technique by Richard Lewisohn. Prior to Lewisohn's work in 1913, blood could not be stored and had to be transfused directly between donor and recipient. The use of sodium citrate as an anticoagulant, together with the use of refrigeration (introduced by Richard Weil), permitted creation of the first blood banks. Lewisohn and Karl Landsteiner (see above) are considered to be the two researchers most responsible for the invention of modern blood transfusion, which is estimated to have saved in excess of one billion lives since the 1950s alone, making it the single greatest lifesaving medical advance in history.8
The introduction of the side-chain theory of antibody formation by Paul Ehrlich, which has evolved into clonal selection theory, the central paradigm of modern immunology. Ehrlich shared the 1908 Nobel Prize with Élie Metchnikoff* for their independent contributions to immunology. Ehrlich is also considered to be the founder of modern chemotherapeutic medicine. His development of Salvarsan (1909) and Neosalvarsan (1911) constituted the first effective treatment for syphilis and, in the words of Sir Alexander Fleming+, "the beginning - and a magnificent beginning - of bacterial chemotherapy." 9
The isolation and development of penicillin by Sir Ernst Chain. Chain shared the 1945 Nobel Prize for this work with Sir Alexander Fleming+ and Sir Howard Florey+. It was Chain who recognized the potential of Fleming's+ nearly forgotten discovery of the antibacterial properties of Penicillium molds (one of many agents then known to have such properties). Chain, a biochemist, was able to isolate the active antibacterial substance, viz., penicillin, and to work out its molecular structure (later confirmed in the Nobel-Prize-winning x-ray diffraction work of Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin+). Using samples that Chain produced, Chain and Florey+ demonstrated penicillin's stability, nontoxicity, and effectiveness against staphylococcal, streptococcal, and clostridial infections in laboratory animals and humans.
The development of streptomycin by Selman Waksman and Albert Schatz. Waksman received the 1952 Nobel Prize for this work, which created the first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis, for which (in combination with other drugs) it remains a therapeutic mainstay.
The development of isoniazid by Herbert Fox and Harry Yale. Although isoniazid, the leading drug used in the treatment of tuberculosis since the mid-1950s, was first synthesized in 1912 by Josef Mally+ and Hans Leopold Meyer (who later died in the Nazi concentration camp at Terezín), its anti-tubercular properties were not discovered until the early 1950s, when it was independently re-synthesized and clinically explored by three separate groups. These were headed, respectively, by Fox at Hoffmann-La Roche, Yale at Squibb, and Gerhard Domagk+ at Bayer. Isoniazid, used early on in combination with streptomycin and a third drug, para-amino salicylic acid (PAS), and more recently in combination with other drugs, has saved over a hundred million lives since the 1950s. (PAS was developed by Jörgen Lehmann+ in Denmark, based on studies carried out by Frederick Bernheim in the US. In these studies, Bernheim established the metabolic role of salicylic acid in the tubercle bacillus. PAS is basically designed to interfere with these salicylate-dependant metabolic processes, ultimately impairing or killing the bacillus.) In a related, but separate development, iproniazid, an isoniazid derivative first synthesized by Fox in 1951 as a potential anti-tubercular agent, was found to have powerful anti-depressant effects. It subsequently became the basis for the MAOIs (mono-amine oxidase inhibitors) that revolutionized the treatment of clinical depression in the post-war period.
The isolation of cortisone by Tadeus Reichstein. Reichstein shared the 1950 Nobel Prize with Edward Kendall+ and Philip Hench+. Reichstein and Kendall+ were recognized for having independently isolated and characterized the hormones of the adrenal cortex, the most important of which was cortisone.
The chemical synthesis of cortisone by Lewis Sarett*, Max Tishler, and Carl Djerassi. Sarett, working under Tishler at Merck, achieved the first chemical synthesis of the compound. With subsequent improvements by Tishler, Sarett's synthesis made cortisone a commercially available drug for the first time. Further advances achieved independently by Djerassi and by Percy Julian+ made economically viable, large-scale production possible. Sarett, Tishler, and Djerassi were all awarded US National Medals of Science (in 1975, 1987, and 1973, respectively).
The development of aspirin by Arthur Eichengrun and Felix Hoffmann+. Aspirin is an artificially modified form of salicylic acid, a naturally occurring substance that can be obtained from the bark of willow trees, whose analgesic properties have been known since antiquity. Salicylic acid is, however, very poorly tolerated by the digestive system, which greatly limits its medicinal value. Early attempts to reduce its toxicity through acetylation failed to yield acetylsalicylic acid of sufficient purity to be medicinally useful. The first successful synthesis of pure acetylsalicylic acid was achieved in 1897 by Felix Hoffmann+, working at F. Bayer & Co. in Germany. Recently developed evidence indicates, however, that credit for this development should have gone equally, or even predominantly, to Hoffmann's+ Jewish supervisor, Arthur Eichengrun.10
The discovery of prostaglandins by M. W. Goldblatt. (Also discovered independently by Ulf von Euler+.) Sir John Vane* was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1982 for demonstrating that the anti-inflammatory and analgesic action of aspirin-like drugs was via their inhibition of prostaglandin production. Vane also discovered the vasodilator prostacyclin, which led directly to the development of the ACE inhibitors that are widely used in the treatment of hypertension, heart failure, and other vascular diseases. The development of the COX-2 selective inhibitors (such as the "super-aspirin" Celebrex, widely used by severe arthritis sufferers) was largely the work of Philip Needleman.
The discovery of neurotransmitters by Otto Loewi. Loewi shared the 1936 Nobel Prize with Sir Henry Dale+ for their independent work on acetylcholine. Sir Bernard Katz and Julius Axelrod shared the 1970 Nobel Prize with Ulf von Euler+ for advanced work on neurotransmitters. Their work led directly to the development of the class of anti-depressants that includes Prozac, Zoloft, and Paxil. Axelrod, together with Bernard Brodie, Leon Greenberg, and David Lester, was largely responsible for the development of the pain reliever acetaminophen (Tylenol).
The discovery of endorphins and enkephalins by Solomon Snyder and Hans Kosterlitz, respectively. The discovery by Snyder of the opioid receptors in the mammalian nervous system led to the further discovery of endorphins and enkephalins, endogenous opioids that help to control mood and pain. The opioid receptors play a large role in the action of pain killers such as morphine. This new understanding of opioid action has in turn led to the development of synthetic pain killing substitutes with diminished potential for addiction. Snyder and Kosterlitz shared the 1978 Lasker Award in Basic Medical Research for this work.
The discovery and characterization of growth factors by Rita Levi-Montalcini, Viktor Hamburger, and Stanley H. Cohen. Levi-Montalcini and Cohen shared the 1986 Nobel Prize for their identification and isolation of the nerve and epidermal growth factors, respectively. Growth factors (others of which were subsequently discovered) are protein molecular "signals" emitted by cells to control growth and differentiation in neighboring cells. Cohen also elucidated the biochemical pathways through which growth factors act after binding to receptors on the outer membranes of target cells. Growth factors play a large role in embryonic development and are thought to have potential medical application in nerve regeneration, accelerated wound healing, and in the understanding and control of tumor cell proliferation. The "blockbuster" drug Herceptin for treating breast and other cancers is based, in part, on Cohen's epidermal growth factor research.
The development of Warfarin (Coumadin) anticoagulant therapy by Shepard Shapiro. Warfarin is the most commonly used anticoagulant for the prevention of heart attacks and strokes. It is also one of the most widely prescribed medications in the world. It was discovered in 1946 by Karl Paul Link+, who developed it as a rat poison. Its identification and development for use in human anticoagulant therapy resulted from the work of Shapiro in the early 1950s. Previously, in the early 1940s, Shapiro had pioneered the clinical use of the anti-clotting agent methylene dicoumarin (dicoumarol), which was also discovered by Link+.
The development of oral contraceptives by Gregory Pincus, Carl Djerassi, and Frank Colton.
The development of the Salk and Sabin polio vaccines by Jonas Salk and Albert Sabin, respectively. The resulting worldwide near-eradication of polio is estimated to be preventing over one-half million new cases of lifelong paralysis each year. The discovery that the causative agent in polio was, in fact, a virus was made in 1908 by Karl Landsteiner and Erwin Popper.
The development of the hepatitis-B vaccine by Baruch Blumberg and Irving Millman. Blumberg received the 1976 Nobel Prize, in part for this work, which has saved an estimated six-to-seven million lives.
The co-discovery of interferon by Alick Isaacs (in collaboration with Jean Lindenmann+). The large-scale production of recombinant interferon for medical use (a market currently in excess of $15 billion annually) is based largely on the work of Charles Weissmann and Sidney Pestka. Pestka received the US National Medal of Technology in 2001. Interferons are widely used in the treatment of multiple sclerosis, leukemias and lymphomas, melanomas, and hepatitis B and C.
The co-invention of monoclonal antibodies by César Milstein. Milstein shared the 1984 Nobel Prize with Georges Köhler+ for this work. Four of the top ten "blockbuster" anti-cancer drugs, including the top three, are now based on monoclonal antibody technology. The development of all four drugs was based on the application of this research to other research conducted by Jewish scientists. Specifically, Rituxan is based on the non-Hodgkin's lymphoma research of Ronald Levy; Avastin is based on the angiogenesis research pioneered by Judah Folkman; Herceptin is based on the the epidermal growth factor research of Stanley H. Cohen and the HER-2/neu protein research of Robert Weinberg, Jeffrey Drebin, and Mark Greene; and Erbitux is based on research by Michael Sela and John Mendelsohn. The combined annual sales of these four drugs are in excess of $20 billion. (Of the remaining six "small molecule" drugs among the top ten blockbuster anti-cancer agents, at least two are based on the research of Jewish scientists. Specifically, Velcade is based on work by Julian Adams, Avram Hershko, Alexander Varshavsky, Aaron Ciechanover, and Irwin Rose; and Gleevec is based, in part, on the research of Brian Druker.)
The invention of cancer chemotherapy by Louis Goodman, Alfred Gilman, and Sidney Farber. In the early 1940s, Goodman and Gilman discovered the effectiveness of mechlorethamine ("nitrogen mustard") in the treatment of lymphatic malignancies. In the late 1940s, Farber produced the first chemically induced remissions from leukemia using the folic acid inhibitors aminopterin and methotrexate. Eventually mechlorethamine and methotrexate, used in combination with other anti-cancer agents (mechlorethamine is the "M" in MOPP) and radiation, would lead to cures for many previously fatal lymphomas and leukemias, respectively.
The co-development of 6-MP (6-mercaptopurine) by Gertrude Elion, which used in combination with methotrexate and other drugs, has led to cures for most forms of childhood leukemia. Elion was also the co-developer of azathioprine (Imuran), the immunosuppressant that made organ transplants possible between individuals other than identical twins, and of acyclovir (Zovirax) for the treatment of herpes viral infections. Elion and George Hitchings+ received the 1988 Nobel Prize for their joint work.
The discovery and development of cisplatin by Barnett Rosenberg, which has led to a complete reversal in the prognosis for testicular cancer, a malignancy that had almost always been fatal and is now roughly 90% curable. The chemotherapeutic protocols for the use of cisplatin in the treatment and cure of testicular cancer were developed by Lawrence Einhorn (who supervised the successful treatment of Tour de France champion Lance Armstrong+).
The revolutionizing of radiation oncology by Henry Kaplan. Kaplan, the long-time head of radiology at Stanford Medical School, introduced the use of megavolt x-ray therapy in the 1950s, using linear accelerators (LINACs) to generate the required high-energy radiation. The medical LINAC is now the primary tool used in radiation oncology worldwide. Since the 1950s, an estimated forty million cancer patients have received such radiation treatments. (Currently about half of all cancer patients receive radiotherapy, primarily from LINAC-generated x-rays.) Even more significantly, Kaplan and his associates demonstrated that radiotherapy could be employed as a curative, rather than a merely palliative, cancer treatment. By the late 1970s, using radiotherapy protocols largely developed by Kaplan and his group, cure rates of 70%-80% were being achieved in patients with early-stage Hodgkin's lymphoma, which had previously been a uniformly fatal disease. Kaplan and Saul Rosenberg were the first to apply chemotherapy as an adjunct to radiation therapy in Hodgkin's disease, their regimens achieving initial cure rates in the late 1970s of 30%-40% in late-stage Hodgkin's disease. (With subsequent dramatic improvements in chemotherapy, the primary and secondary roles of radiation and chemotherapy have been reversed; cure rates are now 98% in early-stage Hodgkin's disease and 85% in advanced disease.) Kaplan and his associates were also responsible for the clinical trial studies that established the utility of the histopathologic classification scheme for non-Hodgkin's lymphomas proposed by Henry Rappaport in 1956. Although not widely accepted at the time, the Rappaport classification (with subsequent modifications) has become the most widely used in the staging and treatment of non-Hodgkin's lymphomas. For his pioneering work in radiation oncology, Kaplan became in 1969 the only biomedical scientist to be awarded the prestigious Atoms for Peace Award.
The co-discovery of oncogenes by Harold Varmus and the elucidation of their role in human cancer by Robert Weinberg, Michael Wigler, Bert Vogelstein, Arnold Levine, and others. Varmus shared the 1989 Nobel Prize with Michael Bishop+ for this work.
The discovery of retroviruses and their associated reverse transcriptase enzyme by David Baltimore and Howard Temin. Baltimore and Temin shared the 1975 Nobel Prize for their independent discovery of these viruses, which are implicated in AIDS and in some cancers, and whose existence disproved the "central dogma" of molecular biology.
The development of AZT, protease inhibitors, and other drugs used in the treatment of AIDS by Jerome Horwitz, Samuel Broder, and Irving Sigal. AZT (Retrovir), which was originally synthesized by Horwitz for use as an anti-cancer agent, proved to be the first of the reverse transcriptase inhibitors found effective against HIV. Its identification as such in clinical trials was largely the result of efforts led by Broder, who also co-developed two other reverse transcriptase inhibitors (ddl and ddC). Sigal, who was senior director of molecular biology at Merck prior to his death in the 1988 bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland, was the first to demonstrate the effectiveness of protease inhibitors against HIV. Used in combination, the various reverse transcriptase and protease inhibitors have dramatically improved the outlook for AIDS patients.
The elucidation of the biochemistry of cellular metabolism by Otto Warburg*, Otto Meyerhof, Gustav Embden, Jacob Parnas, Sir Hans Krebs, Fritz Lipmann, Herman Kalckar, Carl Neuberg, Gerty Cori, Konrad Bloch, and others. This includes much of the basic work on glycolysis (Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway), the urea and citric acid cycles (Krebs cycles), the pentose phosphate pathway, and oxidative phosphorylation and the role of ATP, as well as significant contributions to the characterization of glycogen and fatty acid metabolism. Warburg, Meyerhof, Krebs, Lipmann, Cori, and Bloch all received Nobel Prizes.
The invention of radioisotopic tracer techniques by George de Hevesy, Friedrich Paneth, Rudolf Schoenheimer, David Rittenberg, Martin Kamen, William Hassid, and Samuel Ruben. Hevesy and Paneth introduced the general technique, for which Hevesy won the 1943 Nobel Prize in chemistry; Kamen and Ruben discovered the long-lived carbon-14 radioisotope, which has had widespread application in biology (and is also the basis of radiocarbon dating). Melvin Calvin employed carbon-14 to elucidate the so-called dark reactions of photosynthesis, for which he was awarded the 1961 Nobel Prize in chemistry. (Others who made major contributions to the understanding of photosynthesis include the physicist George Feher and the Nobel laureates James Franck, Richard Willstätter, and Otto Warburg*.)
The invention of radioimmunoassay by Rosalyn Yalow and Solomon Berson, which has revolutionized clinical and research practice in such fields as endocrinology and blood banking. The technique, which can be made exquisitely sensitive to trace amounts (nano- and pico-molar concentrations) of specific blood substances, is employed in measuring the levels of most hormones, screening donated blood for hepatitis-B virus, and in allergy and drug level testing. Yalow received the Nobel Prize in 1977 for this work. (Berson died in 1972.)
The determination of key components of the experimental basis for the double helix model of DNA by Phoebus Levene, Erwin Chargaff, and Rosalind Franklin. In 1929, Levene discovered that DNA contains a sugar called deoxyribose and that it consists of a chain of what he termed "nucleotides," units composed of the deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate group, and one of four purine or pyrimidine bases. (The purine and pyrimidine molecular base constituents of DNA were discovered by the German biochemist Albrecht Kossel+.) Levene incorrectly concluded that all four bases were present in equal proportions. Chargaff, however, showed that the four bases were, in fact, present in specific pairwise ratios ([adenine]=[thymine] =/= [guanine]=[cytosine]), implying both structural base pairing and base coding of the genetic information. Finally, Rosalind Franklin's x-ray crystallographic studies of DNA provided the clear evidence for a double helical structure. The theoretical model of Watson+ and Crick+ was largely based on the experimental data provided by the aforementioned chemical and structural analyses.
The breaking of the genetic code by Marshall Nirenberg. Nirenberg and Har Gobind Khorana+ shared the 1968 Nobel Prize for their independent determinations of the code.
The co-discovery of the basic mechanisms of gene regulation by François Jacob, Walter Gilbert, Mark Ptashne, Andrew Fire, Gary Ruvkun, Howard Cedar, Aharon Razin, Michael Grunstein, and Michael Levine. Jacob shared the 1965 Nobel Prize with Jacques Monod+ for their joint work on the development of the operon-repressor model of gene regulation, which was experimentally confirmed by Gilbert, who isolated the lac operon repressor (but whose 1980 Nobel Prize in chemistry was in recognition of other work), and by Ptashne, whose exploration of the phage lambda switch greatly elucidated the process by which regulatory proteins (repressors) switch on and off gene expression. Fire co-discovered RNA interference, an RNA-based gene control process, for which he shared a Nobel Prize in 2006. A second RNA-based gene control mechanism involving short strands of RNA called microRNA was co-discovered by Ruvkun. Cedar and Razin shared the 2008 Wolf Prize in Medicine for their role in the discovery of DNA methylation, which together with histone modification, co-discovered by Grunstein, forms the basis of the new field of epigenetics, which deals with the molecular mechanisms involved in gene activation and suppression by environmental influences. Levine's work on the organization and function of the homeobox genes (which he co-discovered) "has done for animal development what the work on the lac operon and phage lambda did for understanding gene regulation in simpler organisms."11 The discovery of these master genes and their role in development has "shattered our previous notions of animal relationships and of what made animals different, and opened up a whole new way of looking at evolution."12
The discovery of RNA and major contributions to the elucidation of its structure and function by Phoebus Levene, François Jacob, Sydney Brenner, Matthew Meselson, Sol Spiegelman, Sidney Altman, Sir Aaron Klug, Alexander Rich, Leslie Orgel, Andrew Fire, Gary Ruvkun, Roger Kornberg, Ada Yonath, and others. RNA was first identified as a nucleic acid distinct from DNA by Levene in the course of his seminal studies of the nucleic acids in the early part of the twentieth century. The concept of messenger RNA (mRNA) as an information-bearing DNA-to-ribosome intermediary in protein synthesis was first formulated by Jacob and Jacques Monod+ in 1961 and subsequently verified in experiments conducted by Brenner, Jacob, Meselson, and Spiegelman. The surprising catalytic properties of RNA were independently discovered by Altman and by Thomas Cech+, supporting the concept of a pre-biotic "RNA world," first proposed in 1963 by Rich and, independently a few years later, by Orgel and others. Definitive x-ray diffraction studies of RNA structure were first carried out independently by Klug and by Rich. Rich co-discovered double helical RNA and went on to discover the more general process of nucleic acid hybridization, whose further development would "become the technical foundation of modern molecular biology."13 Nucleic acid hybridization, e.g., lies at the heart of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which has revolutionized molecular biological research practice. Double helical RNA has recently been found to play a role in the control of gene expression in a process called RNA interference (RNAi), which was co-discovered by Fire. Another RNA control process regulating gene expression that involves very short, single-stranded RNA molecules called microRNA (miRNA) was co-discovered by Ruvkun. In recent years, sophisticated x-ray crystallographic analyses using synchrotron radiation sources were developed and employed by Kornberg to elucidate the structural dynamics of RNA-polymerase-directed DNA-to-mRNA transcription. Cryo-crystallographic and synchrotron radiation techniques were also developed and used by Ada Yonath to elucidate the structural dynamics of the process of translation, i.e., ribosomal protein synthesis, which involves mRNA, rRNA (ribosomal RNA), and tRNA (transfer RNA). These studies have revealed the ribosome to be, in fact, a very complex ribozyme (RNA enzyme). Jacob, Brenner, Altman, Klug, Fire, Kornberg, and Yonath were all awarded Nobel Prizes. Rich received the US National Medal of Science in 1995.
The co-invention of gene splicing by Stanley N. Cohen. Cohen and Herbert Boyer's+ invention opened up the new field of genetic engineering. Cohen and Boyer+ were recipients of both the US National Medal of Science and the US National Medal of Technology. The latter award cited them "for their fundamental discovery of gene splicing techniques allowing replication in quantity of biomedically important new products, and beneficially transformed plant materials. This discovery of recombinant DNA technology has transformed the basic science of molecular biology and the biotechnology industry." Other major contributors to genetic engineering include Paul Berg, Walter Gilbert, and Daniel Nathans, all of whom received Nobel Prizes for their work.
The discovery of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) by I. I. Rabi. Rabi received the 1944 Nobel Prize in physics for the demonstration of NMR in molecular beams. Felix Bloch shared the 1952 Nobel Prize in physics with Edward Purcell+ for their independent inventions of condensed matter NMR spectroscopy, which is important in biomolecular structure studies, as well as being the basis of the MRI diagnostic imaging technique.14
The invention of the flexible endoscope by Basil Hirschowitz, which has revolutionized surgery by greatly reducing the complexity and invasiveness of many surgical procedures. (This work, undertaken in the mid-1950s, led to the production of the first glass-clad optical fibers, which later revolutionized modern telecommunications.)
The co-invention of LASIK eye surgery by Samuel Blum (together with Rangaswamy Srinivasan+ and James Wynne+).
The invention of phacoemulsification cataract surgery by Charles Kelman, which is the technique most widely used for cataract removal worldwide. More than two hundred million such operations have been performed. It has revolutionized the procedure by completely eliminating the need for hospitalization, which had previously averaged one week. Kelman was a recipient of both the US National Medal of Technology in 1992 and the Lasker Award for Clinical Medical Research in 2004 (posthumously).
The invention of the cardiac defibrillator, external pacemaker, and cardiac monitor by Paul Zoll. Zoll (and, independently, Wilson Greatbatch+ ) later invented the implantable cardiac pacemaker. Michel Mirowski and Morton Mower were two of the four inventors of the automatic, implantable cardiac defibrillator.
The invention of the Heimlich Maneuver by Henry Heimlich.
The co-invention of the basic technique used worldwide for the controlled chlorination of drinking water supplies by Abel Wolman. Wolman and Linn Enslow's+ invention resulted in a dramatic reduction in the incidence of such waterborne diseases as cholera, dysentery, and typhoid fever; as such, it was arguably the single most important contribution to public health in the twentieth century. The number of lives thereby saved has been variously estimated as running into the hundreds of millions. Wolman received both the Lasker Award for Public Service in 1960 and the US National Medal of Science in 1974. The Abel Wolman Municipal Building, one of the largest buildings in Baltimore, MD (where he taught at Johns Hopkins), was named in his honor.
NOTES
1. Manasseh ben Israel, The Hope of Israel (London, 1652), reprinted in Manasseh ben Israel's Mission to Oliver Cromwell, edited by Lucien Wolf (London, 1901, pp. 50-51).
2. Winston Churchill, History of the English-Speaking Peoples, Vol. 1 (Cassell, London, 1956).
3. Frank Heynick, Jews and Medicine: An Epic Saga (KTAV, Hoboken, NJ, 2002).
4. Ibid., p. 123.
5. Ibid., pp. 124,130-131.
6. Ibid., p. 13.
7. For statistics on Vienna, see Vienna and the Jews, 1867-1938: A Cultural History, by Steven Beller (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1989, pp. 36-
37); on Berlin, see
Germany Without
Double post, sorry.

[Akzle]

.

However - you mentioned in another thread about a no-pants Thursday.

I believe this should be national policy, effective immediately.

well, duh .

[mashman]

compare the average averageman: is not trained in hand to hand combat. (and nor should they need be) (whereas the average crim probably been copping a hiding from dad since he was 10, which makes him manly and tough and gives him the right to use violence on other, weaker humanoids to gain power) presenting a firearm tends to stop most situations developing negatively (for the victim), if that fails, bullets deffo do.

you were well in line to be my finance minister :rofl:
now... maybe not. (you'll cry a river, i'm sure)
subsidy is an option. gimmie the cost-benefit-timeframe-viability-accountability analysis on that. if teh govt/hospos buy a bad batch off the blackpower, and kill grandma, who is going to eat shit?


fair. IF said office worker can achieve their shit from home. (i forsee most office jobs becoming obsolete anyway)
so far (granted, under the current system) studies show that: no.
which also shows the failings in the "your time is worth money" dogma that persists... if they only do 2 hours work, how do they make up the other 80% of their income...

That's how things currently are, and it ain't like them thar folk that wandered into the Colosseum where trained to deal with what was coming. It works. Rome burned and the folks was happy coz they had champions and bread and circuses.

ha ha ha ha ha ha ha haaaaaaaaa... I'll cwy and cwy and cwy til I'm sick. It's all about creative accounting.
Cost benefits: You'll be wasting government, and other, resources by reinventing the wheel. Give a man a fish and he'll pass you back A grade anything. If there's guaranteed supply, then there's no need to produce shit... specially if they're supplying an export market.

Aye... Tech Unemployment is a comin', coz business needs to protect market share. Innovate or the kiddy comin' out of uni will provide competition that you won't be able to compete with. It will kill any financial economy coz less income = less tax... and lowering prices to meet that $ in peeps pockets = less income = less tax etc... aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaand given that every employee is the customer of multiple businesses, less customers = less income = less tax etc... It's an economy killer that can be used to one's advantage should one wish to comprehend what's actually going on like. Somewhat ironical like, is that the ECP guarantees this.
If they only do 2 hours, but the job gets done, why would you care given that you will have also ended homelessness as well as providing housing stock for the future without lifting a finger or losing anything. It'll start encouraging people to come to terms with the fact that it's actually the output and not the number of hours worked that sees you get paid. Only morons still believe that time is money. Here's a real world example for ya (http://www.bbc.com/news/business-38843341).

Ya need to up yer game boss.

[crack]

That's how things currently are, and it ain't like them thar folk that wandered into the Colosseum where trained to deal with what was coming. It works. Rome burned and the folks was happy coz they had champions and bread and circuses.

ha ha ha ha ha ha ha haaaaaaaaa... I'll cwy and cwy and cwy til I'm sick. It's all about creative accounting.
Cost benefits: You'll be wasting government, and other, resources by reinventing the wheel. Give a man a fish and he'll pass you back A grade anything. If there's guaranteed supply, then there's no need to produce shit... specially if they're supplying an export market.

Aye... Tech Unemployment is a comin', coz business needs to protect market share. Innovate or the kiddy comin' out of uni will provide competition that you won't be able to compete with. It will kill any financial economy coz less income = less tax... and lowering prices to meet that $ in peeps pockets = less income = less tax etc... aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaand given that every employee is the customer of multiple businesses, less customers = less income = less tax etc... It's an economy killer that can be used to one's advantage should one wish to comprehend what's actually going on like. Somewhat ironical like, is that the ECP guarantees this.
If they only do 2 hours, but the job gets done, why would you care given that you will have also ended homelessness as well as providing housing stock for the future without lifting a finger or losing anything. It'll start encouraging people to come to terms with the fact that it's actually the output and not the number of hours worked that sees you get paid. Only morons still believe that time is money. Here's a real world example for ya (http://www.bbc.com/news/business-38843341).

Ya need to up yer game boss.

You install a $10mil automated timber processing machine, you pay $2.5 mil, and you borrow $7.5 mil @ 5.25% over 5 years:
your repayments are approx $1,893,750 per year, and approx $39,453.125 a week:
your machine can process 10 cubic meters an hour @$2500 per cube, and return you $5000 per cube, making you $2500 per cube per hour.
or $return you $200,000 per 8 hour shift, and $600,000 per 24 hour shift:

Now tell me Im a Moron and that time is not money?


ON the news tonight Simon Bridges says he has thrown his hat in the ring for the leadership, and he thinks voters will see the error of their ways:

Fucking arrogance of National, after voting for them for 44 years, I voted labour for the first time recently, due to the selling of passports and favoritism of the rich, the selling of our land and assets, being owned by the Aussie banks, the overall in my opinion of the parties arrogance:

Thank you Simon Bridges, you confirmed my thoughts.

And $560 + to ride my bike legally, and if I get knocked off by a car at fault, Im still penalized out of the motorcycle Acc take.

As for ACC, they are not there to help you, they are not your friend:

Slott the fucking lot and start again.

Up yeh game!:crazy:

[Luckylegs]

You had me until...


- much aligned with george carlin's thinking - "tiny house" modules will be dropped on golf courses and turned into slums/social housing.
- "work for benefit" schema will be introduced immediately, and probably to do a lot of the jobs local council pays for.

Can I propose that rather than create the slum housing on my local golf course, that you house em elsewhere but to take care of the work for benefit that you send em along as caddies - fankuverymuch

...There's plenty of em, perhaps they can also be sent to other sporting events to provide services to those who work hard to enjoy their chosen recreational activities. Perhaps, brollie girls at ze track days or bait for the recreational big game fisherman... oh wait, that last one might not be sustainable???

[mashman]

You install a $10mil automated timber processing machine, you pay $2.5 mil, and you borrow $7.5 mil @ 5.25% over 5 years:
your repayments are approx $1,893,750 per year, and approx $39,453.125 a week:
your machine can process 10 cubic meters an hour @$2500 per cube, and return you $5000 per cube, making you $2500 per cube per hour.
or $return you $200,000 per 8 hour shift, and $600,000 per 24 hour shift:

Now tell me Im a Moron and that time is not money?

If time is money, why am I not paid to do what I currently do? That time is money to you, does not make it so across the board. Ask any volunteer, moron.

And iffen you'd like to consider your example a little further and take into account the externalities of the timber industry, or any other industry that's still functioning on the concept of time equaling money, then this fella explains how moronic such is (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jQGHJa4Im4A). In fact he refers to such as brain damage. Maybe moron isn't a strong enough word.




ON the news tonight Simon Bridges says he has thrown his hat in the ring for the leadership, and he thinks voters will see the error of their ways:

Fucking arrogance of National, after voting for them for 44 years, I voted labour for the first time recently, due to the selling of passports and favoritism of the rich, the selling of our land and assets, being owned by the Aussie banks, the overall in my opinion of the parties arrogance:

Thank you Simon Bridges, you confirmed my thoughts.

And $560 + to ride my bike legally, and if I get knocked off by a car at fault, Im still penalized out of the motorcycle Acc take.

As for ACC, they are not there to help you, they are not your friend:

Slott the fucking lot and start again.

Up yeh game!:crazy:

The voters will see the error of their ways the next time they swing to National. Then after that, they'll see the error of their ways again and swing back to Labour. Then after that, they'll see the error of their ways and swing back to National.............. Every single government is budget constrained, and therefore they must facilitate an environment where money is the primary requirement for a healthier economy, coz time = money :killingme

[Akzle]

You had me until...



Can I propose that rather than create the slum housing on my local golf course, that you house em elsewhere but to take care of the work for benefit that you send em along as caddies - fankuverymuch
oh i geddit. you're one of THOSE sorts.


...no.
golf is an ridiculous waste of time money and space.
cricket is also going to be shitcanned. that shit's just so fucking boring.


...There's plenty of em, perhaps they can also be sent to other sporting events to provide services to those who work hard to enjoy their chosen recreational activities. Perhaps, brollie girls at ze track days or bait for the recreational big game fisherman... oh wait, that last one might not be sustainable???
i doubt you'd want to see half of them anyway other than fully-clothed.
and lawd knows what you'd pull in with em... really hungry sharks maybe

[Akzle]

That's how things currently are, and it ain't like them thar folk that wandered into the Colosseum where trained to deal with what was coming. It works. Rome burned and the folks was happy coz they had champions and bread and circuses.
slightly different set of circumstances, one could even go so far as to call that a man of straw...




Cost benefits: You'll be wasting government, and other, resources by reinventing the wheel. Give a man a fish and he'll pass you back A grade anything. If there's guaranteed supply, then there's no need to produce shit... specially if they're supplying an export market.
like i said... find the the people making the shit here... i doubt you will.
and there's no reason they can't keep on... if they can make a saleable product, (the royal-) we may buy off them. if not, i'd rather the quality and continuity of supply was in my control
my target wasn't export, it was simply removing the (foreign, overseas pharma-) jews from the people's health.


Aye... Tech Unemployment is a comin', coz business needs to protect market share. Innovate or the kiddy comin' out of uni will provide competition that you won't be able to compete with. It will kill any financial economy coz less income = less tax... and lowering prices to meet that $ in peeps pockets = less income = less tax etc... aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaand given that every employee is the customer of multiple businesses, less customers = less income = less tax etc... It's an economy killer that can be used to one's advantage should one wish to comprehend what's actually going on like. Somewhat ironical like, is that the ECP guarantees this.
If they only do 2 hours, but the job gets done, why would you care given that you will have also ended homelessness as well as providing housing stock for the future without lifting a finger or losing anything. It'll start encouraging people to come to terms with the fact that it's actually the output and not the number of hours worked that sees you get paid. Only morons still believe that time is money. Here's a real world example for ya (http://www.bbc.com/news/business-38843341).

i don't even think we're arguing on that.
i forsee a UBI being implemented. one way or another.

[Akzle]

Fucking arrogance of National, after voting for them for 44 years, I voted labour for the first time recently, due to the selling of passports and favoritism of the rich, the selling of our land and assets, being owned by the Aussie banks, the overall in my opinion of the parties arrogance:
Up yeh game!:crazy:

errr. that's just government.
it doesn't matter what colour puppet is dancing in front of you. (the whole "voting" thing makes you feel like you actually matter. also cedes your right to self determination, by "representation")

[mashman]

slightly different set of circumstances, one could even go so far as to call that a man of straw...

Not really. The trained and untrained in whatever disciplines live or die based on someone else deciding their fate.



like i said... find the the people making the shit here... i doubt you will.
and there's no reason they can't keep on... if they can make a saleable product, (the royal-) we may buy off them. if not, i'd rather the quality and continuity of supply was in my control
my target wasn't export, it was simply removing the (foreign, overseas pharma-) jews from the people's health.

Of course I ain't gonna go hunt out the guy who cooks pure and is then cut to buggary through the entire supply chain. That'd be silly.
It's never in your control when discretionary income decides product quality and you can make more by cutting it to shreds ;)
Not export eh. I pity your finance minister :killingme.



i don't even think we're arguing on that.
i forsee a UBI being implemented. one way or another.

:killingme@UBI. Did you see the less tax bits? How are you going to pay for a UBI when that UBI is going to be based on the discretionary income of the government? lollies. I'm guessing that you didn't, as you forsee a UBI one way or another. Cute. You an Ocean have a lot in common, :shifty:, despite the countries running UBI trials already having stated that it can't be accomplished nationally coz that kind of financial distribution cannot take place due to there being not enough money, and where there is not enough money already in circulation, tech unemployment will rip the tax base out of any country. Pretty tricky to deny, coz it ain't my opinion, it's just how things currently work :wari:

[R650R]

- Politicians will be on minimum wage, their families lose all "benefits" - this should incentivise them to make decisions for the benefit of everyone and remove it as a viable career for jew cunts who want to funnel govt monies to their other private interests.

I've always said take away the money.

Being an MP or counciller should be an honourary position for a retired/semi retired person whose only allowed to interfere and change shit that they have professional experience of. Maybe give free accomodation and food/transport where appropriatte.

Just look at well run sports clubs where you have voluntary committee members unpaid. When people do something for the love its done right and properly for the most part. Our world is so fucked from career politicos only thinking three years ahead....


Ohhh and make social housing a voting game. People who need a state house have to publicly post there employment/attempts at, police records, family numbers, face photos, accomodation history, relationship history.
The nearest 100 residents get to vote whether they move in or not and have up to six month right to evict without notice if they donbt fit in.
Just got a letter, MSD is going to demolish a half decent house few houses down road and build new 'modern social housing' for 'those most in need'.... hope that means the current tenants are gone... police are there more often than they are at station!!! and with the smashing sounds domestics god knows what the inside looks like... this is after the previous taxpayer funded do up....

[Akzle]

Not really. The trained and untrained in whatever disciplines live or die based on someone else deciding their fate.
nyahuh. so when thieving =~ getting shot, is it really someone elses problem if you choose to thief?


Of course I ain't gonna go hunt out the guy who cooks pure and is then cut to buggary through the entire supply chain. That'd be silly.
so.... you just expect them to rock up to the hospital with a suitcase, like "wanna see my gear?"?


It's never in your control when discretionary income decides product quality and you can make more by cutting it to shreds ;)
i sense we're talking at cross-purposes.
teh govt has no shortage of the jewgolds. (plus, technically the capacity to make m0ar...(or borrow off international jewguys)
...so instead of giving it to the international pharmajews for products of questionable value at prices we don't control, and are arbitrarily inflated, i'll re-route it to domestic production.


Not export eh. I pity your finance minister :killingme. and which countries do you perceive will be importing the mongrel mob's finest indo skunk?


:killingme@UBI. Did you see the less tax bits? How are you going to pay for a UBI
well that's just it. "one way and another" ≠ "pay"

it may be that beer, ciggies and food are produced and distributed for no "pay"

...weren't you all about a money-free, every-shit-is-free thing?


when that UBI is going to be based on the discretionary income of the government? lollies. I'm guessing that you didn't, as you forsee a UBI one way or another. Cute.

cute indeed. that you think te govt's "income" is limited.
pro-tip: tax isn't it.
currency actually comes out of fairy banker's assholes doncha know :msn-wink:


You an Ocean have a lot in common, :shifty:,
now i just feel like you're trying to be rude.


despite the countries running UBI trials already having stated that it can't be accomplished nationally coz that kind of financial distribution cannot take place due to there being not enough money, and where there is not enough money already in circulation, tech unemployment will rip the tax base out of any country. Pretty tricky to deny, coz it ain't my opinion, it's just how things currently work :wari:
again with this "money" shit... completely separate issue from un(der)-employment and taxation.

[Akzle]

I've always said take away the money.

Being an MP or counciller should be an honourary position for a retired/semi retired person whose only allowed to interfere and change shit that they have professional experience of. Maybe give free accomodation and food/transport where appropriatte.
you can be my minister of speeling englund goodly. :bleh:

what it *should* be is representative of your constituents.
this tends to a pyramid hierarchy. - not perfect. but pretty good.

what it *is* is a three ring circus sideshow.


Ohhh and make social housing a voting game. People who need a state house have to publicly post there employment/attempts at, police records, family numbers, face photos, accomodation history, relationship history.
that's a bit discriminatory.
not entirely without merit. certainément there exist suburbs with "charters" (how long your lawn can be, when you can wash your car, what colour you can paint your windowsills &c) but those suburbs tend to be a) rich and b) wankers.


The nearest 100 residents get to vote whether they move in or not and have up to six month right to evict without notice if they donbt fit in.
ah yes. the old "conform or fuck off" thing. i'm not a fan.

i'm picking you're day-lilly white. not that you'd WANT to live around darkies, but if that was your only choice (by whatever happenstance) do you think you could "fit in" on te marae?
can you cook a decent curry? will you bow to mecca five times a day?
etcetera.


Just got a letter, MSD is going to demolish a half decent house few houses down road and build new 'modern social housing' for 'those most in need'.... hope that means the current tenants are gone... police are there more often than they are at station!!! and with the smashing sounds domestics god knows what the inside looks like... this is after the previous taxpayer funded do up....

well. do you fit in or what?? :bleh:

[mashman]

nyahuh. so when thieving =~ getting shot, is it really someone elses problem if you choose to thief?

Absolutely not from a purist pont of view... but where your life has been subject to Structural Violence i.e. your access to the resources for life are limited by the system and the amount of $ it has spare for you to be able to eat etc... then I reckon there's plenty serious mitigating circumstances.


so.... you just expect them to rock up to the hospital with a suitcase, like "wanna see my gear?"?

Ain't that what salesmen do? If you've made it legal, then I fail to see why they wouldn't if they reckon they've got the good shit.


i sense we're talking at cross-purposes.
teh govt has no shortage of the jewgolds. (plus, technically the capacity to make m0ar...(or borrow off international jewguys)
...so instead of giving it to the international pharmajews for products of questionable value at prices we don't control, and are arbitrarily inflated, i'll re-route it to domestic production.

The govt can't just print jewgolds irrespective of how infinite that supply is, coz it's got to be backed by summink innit. No need to borrow iffen yer read a little Modern Monetary Theory... but it'll likely end you up in sanction and embargo central for rocking the financial boat, which never seems to turn out well.
Good luck with denying your import markets and expecting to still be able to export.


and which countries do you perceive will be importing the mongrel mob's finest indo skunk?

The ones who no longer want it from the pharmajews.


well that's just it. "one way and another" ≠ "pay"

it may be that beer, ciggies and food are produced and distributed for no "pay"

...weren't you all about a money-free, every-shit-is-free thing?

Indeed... but you've just added a new dimension where everything else you were talking about has a financial basis. If you're not earning $ in your local economy i.e. cig duties etc... then you're going to have even less money in circulation and will be even less likely to fund a UBI. If you want a UBI so badly, then you need a debt jubilee also.


cute indeed. that you think te govt's "income" is limited.
pro-tip: tax isn't it.
currency actually comes out of fairy banker's assholes doncha know :msn-wink:

I do indeed know that... and yet there are limits in place so as not to saturate the markets with too much of any given currency coz that sort of thing causes instability, devalues the currency and leaves markets open to all sorts of potential financial issues.


now i just feel like you're trying to be rude.

Just an observation based on what you've written... not an opinion. Search your feelings, nooooo the other ones, you know it to be true :killingme


again with this "money" shit... completely separate issue from un(der)-employment and taxation.

Only if it isn't backed by anything and your international busness partners are ok with being told to fuck off. I kind of see it backfiring, but hey... no harm in trying. Bon chance mon ami.

[cc rider]

Transport and Licensing
- All driver licenses are null and void effective immediately. (Everyone must re-sit under new framework)
Awesome :Punk: So will that include recalling all the ditch jumps back to the Fatherland to resit? :soon:

[Akzle]

Awesome :Punk: So will that include recalling all the ditch jumps back to the Fatherland to resit? :soon:

I'm glad you raised that cos it had skipped my mind.

- International driver licenses no longer recognised or transferable.
Tourists may sit a reduced test, and get issued with T plates.
obvs if they can't pass the test, they're not allowed to drive.

if you're here permanently you sit our test.

[cc rider]

I'm glad you raised that cos it had skipped my mind.

- International driver licenses no longer recognised or transferable.
Tourists may sit a reduced test, and get issued with T plates.
obvs if they can't pass the test, they're not allowed to drive.

if you're here permanently you sit our test.
Was thinking more from my side of the ditch actually :whistle:

But hey, happy to contribute to the mindless mayhem
:bleh:

[Akzle]

Was thinking more from my side of the ditch actually :whistle:

But hey, happy to contribute to the mindless mayhem
:bleh:
mmm. right. nah. stay there ya fkn strayan. :bleh:



Absolutely not from a purist pont of view... but where your life has been subject to Structural Violence i.e. your access to the resources for life are limited by the system and the amount of $ it has spare for you to be able to eat etc... then I reckon there's plenty serious mitigating circumstances.
most of the thiefs i've had anything to do with didn't steal cos they were hungry.



Ain't that what salesmen do? If you've made it legal, then I fail to see why they wouldn't if they reckon they've got the good shit.
i think we're just going to have to agree to disagree that you're wrong on this.


The govt can't just print jewgolds irrespective of how infinite that supply is, coz it's got to be backed by summink innit. and that is.... what?
the faith of the people...


No need to borrow iffen yer read a little Modern Monetary Theory... but it'll likely end you up in sanction and embargo central for rocking the financial boat, which never seems to turn out well.
Good luck with denying your import markets and expecting to still be able to export.
export isn't a huge focus for me. like. at all. and seems pretty much unnecessary.
and asides from anything, we'll be cutting all ties with all jewcompanies.



The ones who no longer want it from the pharmajews.
what a fantastic non-answer. have you thought about going into politics? :bleh:


Indeed... but you've just added a new dimension where everything else you were talking about has a financial basis. If you're not earning $ in your local economy i.e. cig duties etc... then you're going to have even less money in circulation and will be even less likely to fund a UBI. If you want a UBI so badly, then you need a debt jubilee also.

I do indeed know that... and yet there are limits in place so as not to saturate the markets with too much of any given currency coz that sort of thing causes instability, devalues the currency and leaves markets open to all sorts of potential financial issues.

Only if it isn't backed by anything and your international busness partners are ok with being told to fuck off. I kind of see it backfiring, but hey... no harm in trying. Bon chance mon ami.

perhaps my bad for using words people associate with "financial" shit.
but i'm pretty sure i mentioned that the system of debt based currency was to be shitcanned.

[mashman]

most of the thiefs i've had anything to do with didn't steal cos they were hungry.

Stockholm Syndrome.



perhaps my bad for using words people associate with "financial" shit.
but i'm pretty sure i mentioned that the system of debt based currency was to be shitcanned.

I know. I'm just laughing at your way of going about it.


export isn't a huge focus for me

You're bringing a limp lettuce to a nuclear war :bleh:

[cc rider]

mmm. right. nah. stay there ya fkn strayan. :bleh:No. No. No, you silly chocolate fish muncher. :facepalm: We want you to take back YOUR fine citizens from Oz, to resit their licenses. :Police:

[Scuba_Steve]

I'm glad you raised that cos it had skipped my mind.

- International driver licenses no longer recognised or transferable.
Tourists may sit a reduced test, and get issued with T plates.
obvs if they can't pass the test, they're not allowed to drive.

if you're here permanently you sit our test.

I say go 1 step further, if you want to drive on NZ roads you get a NZ licence tourist or not.
I reckon we're at a point now where confuzers are good enough to test ones driving ability & not influenced by shit like greed & emotions.

Run all licencing via simulation. This will allow for logical pass/fail, tests of all road conditions, designs & traffic densities, will allow all to experience the limitations of different vehicles & the blind spots therein, it will streamline the process & allows for testing of all who wish to use NZ roads.
Make every rental place have one for the tourists as a requirement for business or at-least access to one (like shared between companies @ airports)


Oh & why we're talking roading abolish the NZTA & put someone competent in control of road design

[TheDemonLord]

Oh & why we're talking roading abolish the NZTA & put someone competent in control of road design

Ze Germans?

[crack]

If time is money, why am I not paid to do what I currently do? That time is money to you, does not make it so across the board. Ask any volunteer, moron.

And iffen you'd like to consider your example a little further and take into account the externalities of the timber industry, or any other industry that's still functioning on the concept of time equaling money, then this fella explains how moronic such is (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jQGHJa4Im4A). In fact he refers to such as brain damage. Maybe moron isn't a strong enough word.




The voters will see the error of their ways the next time they swing to National. Then after that, they'll see the error of their ways again and swing back to Labour. Then after that, they'll see the error of their ways and swing back to National.............. Every single government is budget constrained, and therefore they must facilitate an environment where money is the primary requirement for a healthier economy, coz time = money :killingme

Maybe you are doing "Voluntary work" (your choice):

Maybe you can not work?

Maybe you need to re-evaluate your self:

Maybe you have what you aimed for?

Maybe you need to aim higher?

Maybe you are pissed with your lot in life:

I dont know and I cant give you an answer:

You can however answer your own question.

Facts are, you dont get what you are worth, You get what you agree to:

If you dont like it where you are, Use your feet!

[Banditbandit]

LOVE IT

Six pages ... count them - SIX PAGES - of getting sucked into Akzle's deliberate bullshit ...

He's sitting in Whangarei laughing his arse off ...

You suckers will never learn ..

(Akzle - sorry to blow your fun ... it makes me laugh too ... )

[TheDemonLord]

A+ Thread

Would post in again.




Plus, so far it's the most honest bit of discourse we've had on KB for a while.

[crack]

LOVE IT

Six pages ... count them - SIX PAGES - of getting sucked into Akzle's deliberate bullshit ...

He's sitting in Whangarei laughing his arse off ...

You suckers will never learn ..

(Akzle - sorry to blow your fun ... it makes me laugh too ... )

To contribute to mindless shit and folly!:devil2::devil2:

[Akzle]

No. No. No, you silly chocolate fish muncher. :facepalm: We want you to take back YOUR fine citizens from Oz, to resit their licenses. :Police:

psssssht. hell no. not my problem.

[Akzle]

I say go 1 step further, if you want to drive on NZ roads you get a NZ licence tourist or not.
I reckon we're at a point now where confuzers are good enough to test ones driving ability & not influenced by shit like greed & emotions.

Run all licencing via simulation. This will allow for logical pass/fail, tests of all road conditions, designs & traffic densities, will allow all to experience the limitations of different vehicles & the blind spots therein, it will streamline the process & allows for testing of all who wish to use NZ roads.
Make every rental place have one for the tourists as a requirement for business or at-least access to one (like shared between companies @ airports)


i'm not sure how expensive or effective such "simulation" would be. haptic feedback and e whatnot. i canusually tell when i'm about to spin a vehicle/drop a bike IRL. sega just isn't there yet.

plus i envision my licensing proccess to take quite a while, not suitable for one-month-wonders. and can you really agine a 4ft azn woman driving a fucking combine harvester?


Oh & why we're talking roading abolish the NZTA & put someone competent in control of road design

well duh.

- every one tasked with road engineering/design shall a) ride motorcycles and b) not be a fuckwit.

[Akzle]

LOVE IT

Six pages ... count them - SIX PAGES - of getting sucked into Akzle's deliberate bullshit ...

He's sitting in Whangarei laughing his arse off ...

You suckers will never learn ..

(Akzle - sorry to blow your fun ... it makes me laugh too ... )

oh no, darkfulla. i'm dead srs.

vote akzle.

(plus y'all need to change your settings. it's 3 pages for me)

[Akzle]

A+ Thread

Would post in again.




Plus, so far it's the most honest bit of discourse we've had on KB for a while.

and nary a fuckwit in sight

[Swoop]

Maybe you are doing "Voluntary work" (your choice)
With him it would be called "community work".

[Banditbandit]

oh no, darkfulla. i'm dead srs.

vote akzle.

(plus y'all need to change your settings. it's 3 pages for me)

Hahahaha .. did you have a straight moment ?

[R650R]

ah yes. the old "conform or fuck off" thing. i'm not a fan.

i'm picking you're day-lilly white. not that you'd WANT to live around darkies, but if that was your only choice (by whatever happenstance) do you think you could "fit in".....

I never mentioned race but nice of you to fill inter blanks....

It’s as simple as wishing people would have firstly self respect then respect for their neighbours... No problems here with ‘darkies’ good mates and work colleagues with many.....

[R650R]

You install a $10mil automated timber processing machine, you pay $2.5 mil, and you borrow $7.5 mil @ 5.25% over 5 years:
your repayments are approx $1,893,750 per year, and approx $39,453.125 a week:
your machine can process 10 cubic meters an hour @$2500 per cube, and return you $5000 per cube, making you $2500 per cube per hour.
or $return you $200,000 per 8 hour shift, and $600,000 per 24 hour shift:

Now tell me Im a Moron and that time is not money?


10m3 an hour???? That’s like two packs of timber

[crack]

10m3 an hour???? That’s like two packs of timber

Indeed you are!

[AllanB]

Taxes. Whachyagonnado? I feel I pay way too much tax. And insurance - saps my take home.

[Berries]

Six pages ... count them - SIX PAGES - of getting sucked into Akzle's deliberate bullshit ...

He's sitting in Whangarei laughing his arse off ...

You suckers will never learn ..

Yep, ever since he became a Moderator a couple of weeks ago he has changed.

[Berries]

You mean while I have been incarcerated, (I didnt kill them honestly) :laugh:and undergone years of rectal prodding in the showers, someone stole my AVATAR!:2guns:

I did see a brief mention of The Jewish Culture on here.

I do not subscribe to anti semanticism, anti-semitic Ideology.

My reasoning is that I have studied history, & Jewish History, and their is no doubt they are our creators, (whoever you wish to call him) chosen people.

The Jewish people make up Under 1% of the worlds population, yet their contributions to Human Kind is HUGE.

A dear and now passed on, friend and colleague, "Steve" AKA JAWS, as a young Pilot officer saw service in the last months of world war two, he was detailed to fly politicians and those accused of war crimes, he and his mates went to the camps of extermination and visited to look at the accused of these horrendous crimes, he said they looked just like you and me, He could not figure out what had gone on in their head.

When they saw the "Bitch of Bergen-Belsen" we wanted to see how ugly this bitch "Irma Grese" was and we took bets as to who amongst us would do her if able! (young guys in their late teens/early 20's).

When they were taken to see her, she was used to having visits from such as Jaws and his mates, out of human interest, she did not like it, she apparently screamed, and nutted off that the polish guard entered her cell, punched her, threw her to the ground, then kicked her with his hobbed boats in the ribs so hard they heard the crack:

He/ dear old Steve, said he still dreamt of this ugly cow and her pure hatred, it shocked and scared him and his mates, (no one did her:laugh:)

They went along to watch her Hang instead.

Have a read if you wish, I leave it to you to form your own opinion.

y Luana Goriss
Updated July 03, 2017
Considering that the Jewish people constitute a mere one-half of one percent of the world's population, Jewish contributions to religion, science, literature, music, medicine, finance, philosophy, entertainment etc., is staggering.

In the field of medicine alone, Jewish contributions are staggering and continue to be so. It was a Jew who created the first polio vaccine, who discovered insulin, who discovered that aspirin dealt with pain, who discovered chloral hydrate for convulsions, who discovered streptomycin, who discovered the origin and spread of infectious diseases, who invented the test for diagnosis of syphilis, who identified the first cancer virus, who discovered the cure for pellagra and added to the knowledge about yellow fever, typhoid, typhus, measles, diphtheria and influenza.

Today, Israel, a nation only sixty years old, has emerged at the forefront of stem-cell research, which will, in the near future, give humanity unprecedented medical treatment for degenerative diseases.

There is a passage in the Talmud that says: “We find in the case of Cain, who killed his brother, that it is written: The bloods of thy brother cry unto me: not the blood of thy brother, but the bloods of thy brother is said, that is, his blood and the blood of his potential descendants.” (Sanhedrin 37a, 37-38.)

Over the past 2,000 years in particular, millions of Jews have been killed in Inquisitions, Pogroms, and more recently, the horror of the Holocaust. One wonders how much more humanity could have gained from the descendants of those murdered and their potential contributions to mankind.

Below is a short list of some of the most important contributions Jewish individuals have made to society.

Jewish Contributions to Society
Albert Einstein Physicist
Jonas Salk Created first Polio Vaccine.
Albert Sabin Developed the oral vaccine for Polio.
Galileo Discovered the speed of light
Selman Waksman Discovered Streptomycin. Coined the word 'antibiotic'.
Gabriel Lipmann Discovered color photography.
Baruch Blumberg Discovered origin and spread of infectious diseases.
G. Edelman Discovered chemical structure of antibodies.
Briton Epstein Identified first cancer virus.
Maria Meyer Structure of atomic nuclei.
Julius Mayer Discovered law of thermodynamics.
Sigmund Freud Father of Psychotherapy.
Christopher Columbus (Marano) Discovered the Americas.
Benjamin Disraeli Prime Minister of Great Britain 1804-1881
Isaac Singer Invented the sewing machine.
Levi Strauss Largest manufacturer of Denim Jeans.
Joseph Pulitzer Established 'Pulitzer Prize' for achievements in journalism, literature, music & art.

And the remnant of Jacob shall be in the midst of many peoples, as dew from the Lord, as showers upon the grass..." MICAH 5:6*

JEWISH NOBEL PRIZE WINNERS
CHEMISTRY
ECONOMICS
LITERATURE
MEDICINE
PEACE
PHYSICS
JEWS IN ANTHROPOLOGY
JEWS IN BIOMEDICAL SCIENCE
JEWS IN CHEMISTRY
JEWS IN CHESS
JEWS IN COMPUTER & INFORMATION SCIENCE
JEWS IN ECONOMICS
JEWS IN LINGUISTICS
JEWS IN LITERATURE
JEWS IN MATHEMATICS
JEWS IN MUSIC
JEWS IN PHILOSOPHY
JEWS IN PHYSICS
JEWS IN PSYCHOLOGY
JEWS IN SOCIOLOGY
REFLECTIONS ON JUDAISM AND THE JEWS
THE WHAT, WHY, & WHO OF THIS WEBSITE

The purpose of this website is to provide an online resource that accurately describes the Jewish contribution to the cultural, scientific, and technological evolution of civilization. Although there are scores of websites currently on the Internet that purport to characterize the Jews and their impact on the world, nearly all of them are sponsored by groups whose ultimate objectives vis-à-vis the Jews range from defamation to outright elimination. Many of the classic works of the anti-Semitic canon, once confined to the fever swamps, have become widely available via these websites, a few of which actually display legal disclaimers concerning their potential for incitement to "unlawful or criminal acts." (The composer Arnold Schoenberg once asked in this connection: "What is anti-Semitism to lead to if not acts of violence? Is it so difficult to imagine that?")

JINFO.ORG has no outside organizational affiliation or sponsorship. The website is an evolving project with new sections being added periodically. Statistical metrics are extensively employed because they are the most efficient technique for objectively summarizing and conveying an overall view of the large quantities of data involved.

Concerning Jewish identity, the vast majority (over 90%) of the individuals listed here as being Jewish are such by virtue of having had two Jewish parents. Also included, however, are individuals with one Jewish parent, as well as a number of Jews-by-choice, with the listings of individuals in the latter two categories qualified as such. In adopting this criterion for inclusion, we have followed the practice employed by the Jewish encyclopedias for more than a century.

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* The passage numbered Micah 5:6 in Jewish Bibles is numbered 5:7 in Christian Bibles.
JEWS IN THE MEDICAL & LIFE SCIENCES
JINFO.ORG
Prior to presenting his appeal to Oliver Cromwell for the readmission of the Jews, who had been expelled from England in 1290, Manasseh ben Israel wrote in The Hope of Israel 1: "Hence it may be seen that God hath not left us; for if one persecutes us, another receives us civilly and courteously; and if this prince treats us ill, another treats us well; if one banisheth us out of his country, another invites us with a thousand privileges ... and do we not see that those Republiques do flourish and much increase in trade who admit the Israelites?" But it was not for their economic prowess alone that the Jews were valued, it was for a whole host of skills, not the least of which was their expertise in the medical arts.

Winston Churchill, writing of the expulsion referred to above, states: "The Jews, held up to universal hatred, were pillaged, maltreated, and finally expelled from the realm. Exception was made for certain physicians without whose skill persons of consequence might have lacked due attention."2 Indeed, more often than not, the chief court physicians of the rulers of Europe were Jews or crypto-Jews. To cite but a few examples, Frederick III of the Holy Roman Empire, Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, Elizabeth I of England, Louis XIV of France, Catherine de Medici, and Catherine the Great of Russia all at one time or another employed Jewish personal physicians.3 Nor was it only the secular rulers of Christendom that depended on Jewish medical skills. As the Spanish philosopher and theologian Ramon Lull (Raymond Lully) complained in the thirteenth century: "Jews are universally entrusted by the great with the care of their health. Nor is the Church free from this abomination, for nearly every monastery has its Jewish physician."4 Among the many Popes who maintained Jewish personal physicians were Martin IV, Nicholas IV, Boniface VIII, Alexander VI, Julius II, Leo X, Clement VII, Paul III, Gregory XV, Urban VIII, and Innocent X.5

Much the same situation prevailed in Dar al-Islam, where, e.g., Maimonides served as court physician to Saladin the Great's Vizier Al-Fadhil and later to Saladin's son and successor. Jews also figured prominently as translators and transmitters to the Moslem world of the medical scholarship of the ancient Greeks, and would later play a similar role in transmitting to Europe the scholarship of Moslem physicians such as Avicenna. In the late Middle Ages, the Jews, numbering only about 1% of Europe's population, constituted roughly half of its physicians.6 During the last of the great European Jewish expulsions in the 1930s, the medical centers of Vienna and Berlin lost nearly half of their physicians and the majority of their medical school faculties.7 Many fled to America, helping to fuel its meteoric rise to preeminence in biomedical research; Jews have accounted for some 40% of US Nobel Prizes in medicine and constitute over one-third of the combined membership of the life sciences divisions of the US National Academy of Sciences and its affiliated Institute of Medicine.

The following links contain lists of prominent Jewish scientists and recipients of major international awards in the biomedical field. The last link below contains an analysis showing that of all the lives saved by all the scientific and medical advances in human history, more than three-fourths of those lives were saved by advances for which Jews constituted fifty percent or more of the principal developers.
Jewish Biomedical & Life Scientists
Jewish Recipients of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (27% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the Lasker Award in Basic Medical Research (32% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the Gairdner Foundation Awards (26% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the Wolf Prize in Medicine (41% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize (43% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the GM Cancer Research Foundation Sloan Prize (38% of recipients)
Jews Among the Creators of History's Greatest Lifesaving Medical & Scientific Advances (estimated 2.8 billion lives saved)
Some of the more notable Jewish contributions to the medical and biological sciences in the modern era are listed below. (The names of non-Jewish scientists mentioned in the accompanying discussion have been denoted with the superscript "+" in order to avoid confusion.)

The invention of local anesthesia by Carl Koller and the discovery of Novocaine by Alfred Einhorn.
The discovery that pancreatic dysfunction is the cause of diabetes by Oskar Minkowski (together with Joseph von Mering+) and the subsequent discovery that this dysfunction involves a deficiency in the hormonal secretions of the islets of Langerhans by Moses Barron. The work of the Canadian team that isolated insulin (Banting+, Best+, Collip+, and Macleod+) was based on these two prior discoveries.
The discovery of the ABO and other human blood groups and of the Rh factor by Karl Landsteiner. (The M, N, and P blood groups were co-discovered with Philip Levine and the Rh factor was co-discovered with Alexander Wiener). Landsteiner received the 1930 Nobel Prize for this work, which made safe blood transfusions possible for the first time. Landsteiner is also considered to be one of the giants of immunology, having made major contributions to the understanding of the chemical basis of antigen-antibody Jews, by Bernt Engelmann (Bantam, New York, 1984, pp. 59-60).
8. Billy Woodward et al., Scientists Greater than Einstein: The Biggest Lifesavers of the Twentieth Century (Linden, Chicago, 2009, pp. 315, 321).
9. Heynick, Jews and Medicine: An Epic Saga, p.461.
10. See http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1119266.
11. See profile of Michael S. Levine by Karen Hopkin in The Scientist (Vol. 21, No. 3, 2007, p. 58).
12. Endless Forms Most Beautiful: The New Science of Evo Devo, by Sean Carroll (W.W. Norton, New York, 2005, p. 9).
13. See Discovering the RNA Double Helix and Hybridization, by Alexander Varshavsky in Cell (Vol. 127, 29 December 2006, pp. 1295-1297).
14. The image reconstruction algorithm employed in all tomographic imaging is based on the Radon transform, which was invented by the Austrian mathematician Johann Radon+ in 1917. In his paper, Radon+ states that his result is based on the prior work of Hermann Minkowski and Paul Funk. Minkowski was the younger brother of the above-mentioned physiologist Oskar Minkowski. Paul Funk was a Czech-Jewish mathematician who survived internment in the Nazi concentration camp at Terezín (Theresienstadt). Gábor Frank obtained the first patents for x-ray tomographic scanning (1938 patents in both Hungary and Germany). Unlike Funk, he did not return from the camps. See Made in Hungary, by Andrew Simon (Simon Publications, Safety Harbor, FL, 1999, p. 266).
A Brief History
On June 19, 1269, the King of France, Louis IX, ordered that any Jew found in any public place not wearing the obligatory yellow badge would be fined 10 livres of silver. (Note: The livre was the monetary unit in France before 1795 when they came up with the franc. The word stems from the Latin word for “pound” and the original livre in 781 CE was 1 pound of silver.) People of Jewish faith or lineage have suffered discrimination and worse for many centuries. Meanwhile, many Jewish scientists, composers, educators, and artists of all types among others have enriched mankind. For example, 3 of the 7 justices on the US Supreme Court are Jewish. (Some of the inventions of Jews; safety razor, printed circuit board, cell phone, transistor, computer mouse, defibrillator, Esperanto, video tape, the Corvette, and the cotton swab.) Here we list 10 of the greatest contributions of people of Jewish background to the United States and the World. Who else would you include? (Note: The arbitrary order listed does not denote relative value of the contribution.)

Digging Deeper
10. Julius Fromm, Latex Condom.


With the loosening of sexual inhibitions after the prudish Victorian age, people obviously needed protection against unwanted pregnancy and disease. Condoms then were made of natural “skin” substances (animal intestines) and of rubber. The rubber condoms were made by wrapping layers of rubber around a mold and then cooking it. Fromm invented a way to make the latex liquid and manufacture the condoms by dipping a mold into the liquid. His invention was made in 1916, and the thinner, cheaper condom was a big success throughout Europe. He also invented the condom vending machine in 1928, leading to the gas station bathroom graffiti, “Don’t buy this gum, it tastes like rubber!”

9. Ruth Handler, Barbie Doll.


Ranking close to the Teddy Bear in the hearts of American children, Barbie has kept girls company since 1959. Handler and her husband were co-founders of Mattel (with Harold Matson) and were manufacturing plastic items such as picture frames when Ruth got the inspiration for Barbie from their daughter, Barbara. The invention of Barbie has made millions of little girls happy and millions of parents wondering where their money went when Barbie “needed” all those accessories.

8. Morris Michtom, Teddy Bear.


Taking inspiration from a cartoon of President Teddy Roosevelt showing a little bear mercy while hunting, Morris and his wife Rose created the Teddy Bear and turned it into an American icon. Cracked fact: Their daughter appeared in 40+ episodes of the television show, Get Smart as a background character.

7. Benjamin Disraeli, British Statesman.


Although born a Sephardic Jew, Disraeli’s father had his family switch to Anglican when Ben was 12, obviously to blend in to British society. (Anglican is the state religion of the United Kingdom.) Disraeli went on to a distinguished career in British politics, serving as Prime Minister and as Chancellor of the Exchequer, as well as a Conservative member of Parliament.

6. Laszlo Biro, Ball Point Pen.


Just think, before 1944 when this Hungarian Jew invented the ball point pen, there were no copy machines and the use of carbon paper to make handwritten copies must have been horrendous with a fountain pen. Smudge free writing and many times less likely to cause a laundry disaster than a fountain pen. Thanks Laszlo!

5. Claude Levi-Strauss, Anthropology.


No he did not invent blue jeans (probably wishes he did!). Claude is called the Father of Modern Anthropology for his work concerning structuralism and structural anthropology. He also studied mythology and applied his structuralist approach to that field. President of France (at the time) Nicolas Sarkozy called him “The greatest ethnologist of our time.” upon his death at age 100 in 2009. Born in Belgium, Levi-Strauss spent most of his life in France.

4. J. Robert Oppenheimer and Edward Teller, Nuclear Physics.


Whether you think nuclear weapons are a good thing or not, Oppenheimer is considered the Father of the Atomic Bomb and Teller is considered the Father of the Hydrogen Bomb. Both were born into Jewish families and both worked in the United States, although Teller was born in Hungary. The fact that these scientists enabled the US to be the first to get nuclear weapons may well have prevented a catastrophe for the Western world had the Soviets or Chinese gotten such weapons first.

3. Sanford “Sandy” Koufax, Baseball.


Born Sanford Braun, Koufax played only 11 years of big league baseball, but what spectacular years they were. He pitched 4 no hitters, struck out 2396 batters and had a career ERA of 2.76. Along with Nolan Ryan, Koufax is one of only two pitchers in the Hall of Fame that struck out more batters than innings they pitched. Amazing fact: In Koufax’s last year (1966) he was 27-9 with a 1.73 ERA! His salary for that fantastic season; a career high $125,000. Koufax famously refused to pitch a World Series game on Yom Kippur, a Jewish holy day.

2. Sigmund Schlomo Freud, Psychoanalysis.


This Austrian Jew is the Father of Psychoanalysis and as such greatly influenced those psychiatrists that came after him. His research and thinking is some of the most influential and insightful delving into the human mind of all time. Cracked fact: Freud thought that the fear of castration among males is provoked by uncircumcised boys seeing boys that are circumcised and as such this constitutes the root of anti-Semitism. Additionally, Freud thought that belief in God is an “illusion” and basically exists to calm man’s fear of “nature” and death.

1. Albert Einstein, Science.


Among other things, Einstein is most famous for his Special and General Theories of Relativity, and for his equation, E= MC2². Often referred to as the smartest man in history, Einstein was in the United States when Hitler and the Nazis took power in Germany where Einstein had been working as a professor in Berlin. Einstein chose to stay in the US as he rightly figured going back to Germany was suicidal. Fun facts: No one knows what Einstein’s last words were because he spoke them in German and no German speaking person was present. Recently discovered correspondence indicates that Einstein was probably an atheist, although he never said so publicly.

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What the Jewish people have done militarily for their tiny nation, has the respect of their allies , and their enemies alike.

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interaction.
The development of the sodium citrate blood storage technique by Richard Lewisohn. Prior to Lewisohn's work in 1913, blood could not be stored and had to be transfused directly between donor and recipient. The use of sodium citrate as an anticoagulant, together with the use of refrigeration (introduced by Richard Weil), permitted creation of the first blood banks. Lewisohn and Karl Landsteiner (see above) are considered to be the two researchers most responsible for the invention of modern blood transfusion, which is estimated to have saved in excess of one billion lives since the 1950s alone, making it the single greatest lifesaving medical advance in history.8
The introduction of the side-chain theory of antibody formation by Paul Ehrlich, which has evolved into clonal selection theory, the central paradigm of modern immunology. Ehrlich shared the 1908 Nobel Prize with Élie Metchnikoff* for their independent contributions to immunology. Ehrlich is also considered to be the founder of modern chemotherapeutic medicine. His development of Salvarsan (1909) and Neosalvarsan (1911) constituted the first effective treatment for syphilis and, in the words of Sir Alexander Fleming+, "the beginning - and a magnificent beginning - of bacterial chemotherapy." 9
The isolation and development of penicillin by Sir Ernst Chain. Chain shared the 1945 Nobel Prize for this work with Sir Alexander Fleming+ and Sir Howard Florey+. It was Chain who recognized the potential of Fleming's+ nearly forgotten discovery of the antibacterial properties of Penicillium molds (one of many agents then known to have such properties). Chain, a biochemist, was able to isolate the active antibacterial substance, viz., penicillin, and to work out its molecular structure (later confirmed in the Nobel-Prize-winning x-ray diffraction work of Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin+). Using samples that Chain produced, Chain and Florey+ demonstrated penicillin's stability, nontoxicity, and effectiveness against staphylococcal, streptococcal, and clostridial infections in laboratory animals and humans.
The development of streptomycin by Selman Waksman and Albert Schatz. Waksman received the 1952 Nobel Prize for this work, which created the first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis, for which (in combination with other drugs) it remains a therapeutic mainstay.
The development of isoniazid by Herbert Fox and Harry Yale. Although isoniazid, the leading drug used in the treatment of tuberculosis since the mid-1950s, was first synthesized in 1912 by Josef Mally+ and Hans Leopold Meyer (who later died in the Nazi concentration camp at Terezín), its anti-tubercular properties were not discovered until the early 1950s, when it was independently re-synthesized and clinically explored by three separate groups. These were headed, respectively, by Fox at Hoffmann-La Roche, Yale at Squibb, and Gerhard Domagk+ at Bayer. Isoniazid, used early on in combination with streptomycin and a third drug, para-amino salicylic acid (PAS), and more recently in combination with other drugs, has saved over a hundred million lives since the 1950s. (PAS was developed by Jörgen Lehmann+ in Denmark, based on studies carried out by Frederick Bernheim in the US. In these studies, Bernheim established the metabolic role of salicylic acid in the tubercle bacillus. PAS is basically designed to interfere with these salicylate-dependant metabolic processes, ultimately impairing or killing the bacillus.) In a related, but separate development, iproniazid, an isoniazid derivative first synthesized by Fox in 1951 as a potential anti-tubercular agent, was found to have powerful anti-depressant effects. It subsequently became the basis for the MAOIs (mono-amine oxidase inhibitors) that revolutionized the treatment of clinical depression in the post-war period.
The isolation of cortisone by Tadeus Reichstein. Reichstein shared the 1950 Nobel Prize with Edward Kendall+ and Philip Hench+. Reichstein and Kendall+ were recognized for having independently isolated and characterized the hormones of the adrenal cortex, the most important of which was cortisone.
The chemical synthesis of cortisone by Lewis Sarett*, Max Tishler, and Carl Djerassi. Sarett, working under Tishler at Merck, achieved the first chemical synthesis of the compound. With subsequent improvements by Tishler, Sarett's synthesis made cortisone a commercially available drug for the first time. Further advances achieved independently by Djerassi and by Percy Julian+ made economically viable, large-scale production possible. Sarett, Tishler, and Djerassi were all awarded US National Medals of Science (in 1975, 1987, and 1973, respectively).
The development of aspirin by Arthur Eichengrun and Felix Hoffmann+. Aspirin is an artificially modified form of salicylic acid, a naturally occurring substance that can be obtained from the bark of willow trees, whose analgesic properties have been known since antiquity. Salicylic acid is, however, very poorly tolerated by the digestive system, which greatly limits its medicinal value. Early attempts to reduce its toxicity through acetylation failed to yield acetylsalicylic acid of sufficient purity to be medicinally useful. The first successful synthesis of pure acetylsalicylic acid was achieved in 1897 by Felix Hoffmann+, working at F. Bayer & Co. in Germany. Recently developed evidence indicates, however, that credit for this development should have gone equally, or even predominantly, to Hoffmann's+ Jewish supervisor, Arthur Eichengrun.10
The discovery of prostaglandins by M. W. Goldblatt. (Also discovered independently by Ulf von Euler+.) Sir John Vane* was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1982 for demonstrating that the anti-inflammatory and analgesic action of aspirin-like drugs was via their inhibition of prostaglandin production. Vane also discovered the vasodilator prostacyclin, which led directly to the development of the ACE inhibitors that are widely used in the treatment of hypertension, heart failure, and other vascular diseases. The development of the COX-2 selective inhibitors (such as the "super-aspirin" Celebrex, widely used by severe arthritis sufferers) was largely the work of Philip Needleman.
The discovery of neurotransmitters by Otto Loewi. Loewi shared the 1936 Nobel Prize with Sir Henry Dale+ for their independent work on acetylcholine. Sir Bernard Katz and Julius Axelrod shared the 1970 Nobel Prize with Ulf von Euler+ for advanced work on neurotransmitters. Their work led directly to the development of the class of anti-depressants that includes Prozac, Zoloft, and Paxil. Axelrod, together with Bernard Brodie, Leon Greenberg, and David Lester, was largely responsible for the development of the pain reliever acetaminophen (Tylenol).
The discovery of endorphins and enkephalins by Solomon Snyder and Hans Kosterlitz, respectively. The discovery by Snyder of the opioid receptors in the mammalian nervous system led to the further discovery of endorphins and enkephalins, endogenous opioids that help to control mood and pain. The opioid receptors play a large role in the action of pain killers such as morphine. This new understanding of opioid action has in turn led to the development of synthetic pain killing substitutes with diminished potential for addiction. Snyder and Kosterlitz shared the 1978 Lasker Award in Basic Medical Research for this work.
The discovery and characterization of growth factors by Rita Levi-Montalcini, Viktor Hamburger, and Stanley H. Cohen. Levi-Montalcini and Cohen shared the 1986 Nobel Prize for their identification and isolation of the nerve and epidermal growth factors, respectively. Growth factors (others of which were subsequently discovered) are protein molecular "signals" emitted by cells to control growth and differentiation in neighboring cells. Cohen also elucidated the biochemical pathways through which growth factors act after binding to receptors on the outer membranes of target cells. Growth factors play a large role in embryonic development and are thought to have potential medical application in nerve regeneration, accelerated wound healing, and in the understanding and control of tumor cell proliferation. The "blockbuster" drug Herceptin for treating breast and other cancers is based, in part, on Cohen's epidermal growth factor research.
The development of Warfarin (Coumadin) anticoagulant therapy by Shepard Shapiro. Warfarin is the most commonly used anticoagulant for the prevention of heart attacks and strokes. It is also one of the most widely prescribed medications in the world. It was discovered in 1946 by Karl Paul Link+, who developed it as a rat poison. Its identification and development for use in human anticoagulant therapy resulted from the work of Shapiro in the early 1950s. Previously, in the early 1940s, Shapiro had pioneered the clinical use of the anti-clotting agent methylene dicoumarin (dicoumarol), which was also discovered by Link+.
The development of oral contraceptives by Gregory Pincus, Carl Djerassi, and Frank Colton.
The development of the Salk and Sabin polio vaccines by Jonas Salk and Albert Sabin, respectively. The resulting worldwide near-eradication of polio is estimated to be preventing over one-half million new cases of lifelong paralysis each year. The discovery that the causative agent in polio was, in fact, a virus was made in 1908 by Karl Landsteiner and Erwin Popper.
The development of the hepatitis-B vaccine by Baruch Blumberg and Irving Millman. Blumberg received the 1976 Nobel Prize, in part for this work, which has saved an estimated six-to-seven million lives.
The co-discovery of interferon by Alick Isaacs (in collaboration with Jean Lindenmann+). The large-scale production of recombinant interferon for medical use (a market currently in excess of $15 billion annually) is based largely on the work of Charles Weissmann and Sidney Pestka. Pestka received the US National Medal of Technology in 2001. Interferons are widely used in the treatment of multiple sclerosis, leukemias and lymphomas, melanomas, and hepatitis B and C.
The co-invention of monoclonal antibodies by César Milstein. Milstein shared the 1984 Nobel Prize with Georges Köhler+ for this work. Four of the top ten "blockbuster" anti-cancer drugs, including the top three, are now based on monoclonal antibody technology. The development of all four drugs was based on the application of this research to other research conducted by Jewish scientists. Specifically, Rituxan is based on the non-Hodgkin's lymphoma research of Ronald Levy; Avastin is based on the angiogenesis research pioneered by Judah Folkman; Herceptin is based on the the epidermal growth factor research of Stanley H. Cohen and the HER-2/neu protein research of Robert Weinberg, Jeffrey Drebin, and Mark Greene; and Erbitux is based on research by Michael Sela and John Mendelsohn. The combined annual sales of these four drugs are in excess of $20 billion. (Of the remaining six "small molecule" drugs among the top ten blockbuster anti-cancer agents, at least two are based on the research of Jewish scientists. Specifically, Velcade is based on work by Julian Adams, Avram Hershko, Alexander Varshavsky, Aaron Ciechanover, and Irwin Rose; and Gleevec is based, in part, on the research of Brian Druker.)
The invention of cancer chemotherapy by Louis Goodman, Alfred Gilman, and Sidney Farber. In the early 1940s, Goodman and Gilman discovered the effectiveness of mechlorethamine ("nitrogen mustard") in the treatment of lymphatic malignancies. In the late 1940s, Farber produced the first chemically induced remissions from leukemia using the folic acid inhibitors aminopterin and methotrexate. Eventually mechlorethamine and methotrexate, used in combination with other anti-cancer agents (mechlorethamine is the "M" in MOPP) and radiation, would lead to cures for many previously fatal lymphomas and leukemias, respectively.
The co-development of 6-MP (6-mercaptopurine) by Gertrude Elion, which used in combination with methotrexate and other drugs, has led to cures for most forms of childhood leukemia. Elion was also the co-developer of azathioprine (Imuran), the immunosuppressant that made organ transplants possible between individuals other than identical twins, and of acyclovir (Zovirax) for the treatment of herpes viral infections. Elion and George Hitchings+ received the 1988 Nobel Prize for their joint work.
The discovery and development of cisplatin by Barnett Rosenberg, which has led to a complete reversal in the prognosis for testicular cancer, a malignancy that had almost always been fatal and is now roughly 90% curable. The chemotherapeutic protocols for the use of cisplatin in the treatment and cure of testicular cancer were developed by Lawrence Einhorn (who supervised the successful treatment of Tour de France champion Lance Armstrong+).
The revolutionizing of radiation oncology by Henry Kaplan. Kaplan, the long-time head of radiology at Stanford Medical School, introduced the use of megavolt x-ray therapy in the 1950s, using linear accelerators (LINACs) to generate the required high-energy radiation. The medical LINAC is now the primary tool used in radiation oncology worldwide. Since the 1950s, an estimated forty million cancer patients have received such radiation treatments. (Currently about half of all cancer patients receive radiotherapy, primarily from LINAC-generated x-rays.) Even more significantly, Kaplan and his associates demonstrated that radiotherapy could be employed as a curative, rather than a merely palliative, cancer treatment. By the late 1970s, using radiotherapy protocols largely developed by Kaplan and his group, cure rates of 70%-80% were being achieved in patients with early-stage Hodgkin's lymphoma, which had previously been a uniformly fatal disease. Kaplan and Saul Rosenberg were the first to apply chemotherapy as an adjunct to radiation therapy in Hodgkin's disease, their regimens achieving initial cure rates in the late 1970s of 30%-40% in late-stage Hodgkin's disease. (With subsequent dramatic improvements in chemotherapy, the primary and secondary roles of radiation and chemotherapy have been reversed; cure rates are now 98% in early-stage Hodgkin's disease and 85% in advanced disease.) Kaplan and his associates were also responsible for the clinical trial studies that established the utility of the histopathologic classification scheme for non-Hodgkin's lymphomas proposed by Henry Rappaport in 1956. Although not widely accepted at the time, the Rappaport classification (with subsequent modifications) has become the most widely used in the staging and treatment of non-Hodgkin's lymphomas. For his pioneering work in radiation oncology, Kaplan became in 1969 the only biomedical scientist to be awarded the prestigious Atoms for Peace Award.
The co-discovery of oncogenes by Harold Varmus and the elucidation of their role in human cancer by Robert Weinberg, Michael Wigler, Bert Vogelstein, Arnold Levine, and others. Varmus shared the 1989 Nobel Prize with Michael Bishop+ for this work.
The discovery of retroviruses and their associated reverse transcriptase enzyme by David Baltimore and Howard Temin. Baltimore and Temin shared the 1975 Nobel Prize for their independent discovery of these viruses, which are implicated in AIDS and in some cancers, and whose existence disproved the "central dogma" of molecular biology.
The development of AZT, protease inhibitors, and other drugs used in the treatment of AIDS by Jerome Horwitz, Samuel Broder, and Irving Sigal. AZT (Retrovir), which was originally synthesized by Horwitz for use as an anti-cancer agent, proved to be the first of the reverse transcriptase inhibitors found effective against HIV. Its identification as such in clinical trials was largely the result of efforts led by Broder, who also co-developed two other reverse transcriptase inhibitors (ddl and ddC). Sigal, who was senior director of molecular biology at Merck prior to his death in the 1988 bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland, was the first to demonstrate the effectiveness of protease inhibitors against HIV. Used in combination, the various reverse transcriptase and protease inhibitors have dramatically improved the outlook for AIDS patients.
The elucidation of the biochemistry of cellular metabolism by Otto Warburg*, Otto Meyerhof, Gustav Embden, Jacob Parnas, Sir Hans Krebs, Fritz Lipmann, Herman Kalckar, Carl Neuberg, Gerty Cori, Konrad Bloch, and others. This includes much of the basic work on glycolysis (Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway), the urea and citric acid cycles (Krebs cycles), the pentose phosphate pathway, and oxidative phosphorylation and the role of ATP, as well as significant contributions to the characterization of glycogen and fatty acid metabolism. Warburg, Meyerhof, Krebs, Lipmann, Cori, and Bloch all received Nobel Prizes.
The invention of radioisotopic tracer techniques by George de Hevesy, Friedrich Paneth, Rudolf Schoenheimer, David Rittenberg, Martin Kamen, William Hassid, and Samuel Ruben. Hevesy and Paneth introduced the general technique, for which Hevesy won the 1943 Nobel Prize in chemistry; Kamen and Ruben discovered the long-lived carbon-14 radioisotope, which has had widespread application in biology (and is also the basis of radiocarbon dating). Melvin Calvin employed carbon-14 to elucidate the so-called dark reactions of photosynthesis, for which he was awarded the 1961 Nobel Prize in chemistry. (Others who made major contributions to the understanding of photosynthesis include the physicist George Feher and the Nobel laureates James Franck, Richard Willstätter, and Otto Warburg*.)
The invention of radioimmunoassay by Rosalyn Yalow and Solomon Berson, which has revolutionized clinical and research practice in such fields as endocrinology and blood banking. The technique, which can be made exquisitely sensitive to trace amounts (nano- and pico-molar concentrations) of specific blood substances, is employed in measuring the levels of most hormones, screening donated blood for hepatitis-B virus, and in allergy and drug level testing. Yalow received the Nobel Prize in 1977 for this work. (Berson died in 1972.)
The determination of key components of the experimental basis for the double helix model of DNA by Phoebus Levene, Erwin Chargaff, and Rosalind Franklin. In 1929, Levene discovered that DNA contains a sugar called deoxyribose and that it consists of a chain of what he termed "nucleotides," units composed of the deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate group, and one of four purine or pyrimidine bases. (The purine and pyrimidine molecular base constituents of DNA were discovered by the German biochemist Albrecht Kossel+.) Levene incorrectly concluded that all four bases were present in equal proportions. Chargaff, however, showed that the four bases were, in fact, present in specific pairwise ratios ([adenine]=[thymine] =/= [guanine]=[cytosine]), implying both structural base pairing and base coding of the genetic information. Finally, Rosalind Franklin's x-ray crystallographic studies of DNA provided the clear evidence for a double helical structure. The theoretical model of Watson+ and Crick+ was largely based on the experimental data provided by the aforementioned chemical and structural analyses.
The breaking of the genetic code by Marshall Nirenberg. Nirenberg and Har Gobind Khorana+ shared the 1968 Nobel Prize for their independent determinations of the code.
The co-discovery of the basic mechanisms of gene regulation by François Jacob, Walter Gilbert, Mark Ptashne, Andrew Fire, Gary Ruvkun, Howard Cedar, Aharon Razin, Michael Grunstein, and Michael Levine. Jacob shared the 1965 Nobel Prize with Jacques Monod+ for their joint work on the development of the operon-repressor model of gene regulation, which was experimentally confirmed by Gilbert, who isolated the lac operon repressor (but whose 1980 Nobel Prize in chemistry was in recognition of other work), and by Ptashne, whose exploration of the phage lambda switch greatly elucidated the process by which regulatory proteins (repressors) switch on and off gene expression. Fire co-discovered RNA interference, an RNA-based gene control process, for which he shared a Nobel Prize in 2006. A second RNA-based gene control mechanism involving short strands of RNA called microRNA was co-discovered by Ruvkun. Cedar and Razin shared the 2008 Wolf Prize in Medicine for their role in the discovery of DNA methylation, which together with histone modification, co-discovered by Grunstein, forms the basis of the new field of epigenetics, which deals with the molecular mechanisms involved in gene activation and suppression by environmental influences. Levine's work on the organization and function of the homeobox genes (which he co-discovered) "has done for animal development what the work on the lac operon and phage lambda did for understanding gene regulation in simpler organisms."11 The discovery of these master genes and their role in development has "shattered our previous notions of animal relationships and of what made animals different, and opened up a whole new way of looking at evolution."12
The discovery of RNA and major contributions to the elucidation of its structure and function by Phoebus Levene, François Jacob, Sydney Brenner, Matthew Meselson, Sol Spiegelman, Sidney Altman, Sir Aaron Klug, Alexander Rich, Leslie Orgel, Andrew Fire, Gary Ruvkun, Roger Kornberg, Ada Yonath, and others. RNA was first identified as a nucleic acid distinct from DNA by Levene in the course of his seminal studies of the nucleic acids in the early part of the twentieth century. The concept of messenger RNA (mRNA) as an information-bearing DNA-to-ribosome intermediary in protein synthesis was first formulated by Jacob and Jacques Monod+ in 1961 and subsequently verified in experiments conducted by Brenner, Jacob, Meselson, and Spiegelman. The surprising catalytic properties of RNA were independently discovered by Altman and by Thomas Cech+, supporting the concept of a pre-biotic "RNA world," first proposed in 1963 by Rich and, independently a few years later, by Orgel and others. Definitive x-ray diffraction studies of RNA structure were first carried out independently by Klug and by Rich. Rich co-discovered double helical RNA and went on to discover the more general process of nucleic acid hybridization, whose further development would "become the technical foundation of modern molecular biology."13 Nucleic acid hybridization, e.g., lies at the heart of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which has revolutionized molecular biological research practice. Double helical RNA has recently been found to play a role in the control of gene expression in a process called RNA interference (RNAi), which was co-discovered by Fire. Another RNA control process regulating gene expression that involves very short, single-stranded RNA molecules called microRNA (miRNA) was co-discovered by Ruvkun. In recent years, sophisticated x-ray crystallographic analyses using synchrotron radiation sources were developed and employed by Kornberg to elucidate the structural dynamics of RNA-polymerase-directed DNA-to-mRNA transcription. Cryo-crystallographic and synchrotron radiation techniques were also developed and used by Ada Yonath to elucidate the structural dynamics of the process of translation, i.e., ribosomal protein synthesis, which involves mRNA, rRNA (ribosomal RNA), and tRNA (transfer RNA). These studies have revealed the ribosome to be, in fact, a very complex ribozyme (RNA enzyme). Jacob, Brenner, Altman, Klug, Fire, Kornberg, and Yonath were all awarded Nobel Prizes. Rich received the US National Medal of Science in 1995.
The co-invention of gene splicing by Stanley N. Cohen. Cohen and Herbert Boyer's+ invention opened up the new field of genetic engineering. Cohen and Boyer+ were recipients of both the US National Medal of Science and the US National Medal of Technology. The latter award cited them "for their fundamental discovery of gene splicing techniques allowing replication in quantity of biomedically important new products, and beneficially transformed plant materials. This discovery of recombinant DNA technology has transformed the basic science of molecular biology and the biotechnology industry." Other major contributors to genetic engineering include Paul Berg, Walter Gilbert, and Daniel Nathans, all of whom received Nobel Prizes for their work.
The discovery of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) by I. I. Rabi. Rabi received the 1944 Nobel Prize in physics for the demonstration of NMR in molecular beams. Felix Bloch shared the 1952 Nobel Prize in physics with Edward Purcell+ for their independent inventions of condensed matter NMR spectroscopy, which is important in biomolecular structure studies, as well as being the basis of the MRI diagnostic imaging technique.14
The invention of the flexible endoscope by Basil Hirschowitz, which has revolutionized surgery by greatly reducing the complexity and invasiveness of many surgical procedures. (This work, undertaken in the mid-1950s, led to the production of the first glass-clad optical fibers, which later revolutionized modern telecommunications.)
The co-invention of LASIK eye surgery by Samuel Blum (together with Rangaswamy Srinivasan+ and James Wynne+).
The invention of phacoemulsification cataract surgery by Charles Kelman, which is the technique most widely used for cataract removal worldwide. More than two hundred million such operations have been performed. It has revolutionized the procedure by completely eliminating the need for hospitalization, which had previously averaged one week. Kelman was a recipient of both the US National Medal of Technology in 1992 and the Lasker Award for Clinical Medical Research in 2004 (posthumously).
The invention of the cardiac defibrillator, external pacemaker, and cardiac monitor by Paul Zoll. Zoll (and, independently, Wilson Greatbatch+ ) later invented the implantable cardiac pacemaker. Michel Mirowski and Morton Mower were two of the four inventors of the automatic, implantable cardiac defibrillator.
The invention of the Heimlich Maneuver by Henry Heimlich.
The co-invention of the basic technique used worldwide for the controlled chlorination of drinking water supplies by Abel Wolman. Wolman and Linn Enslow's+ invention resulted in a dramatic reduction in the incidence of such waterborne diseases as cholera, dysentery, and typhoid fever; as such, it was arguably the single most important contribution to public health in the twentieth century. The number of lives thereby saved has been variously estimated as running into the hundreds of millions. Wolman received both the Lasker Award for Public Service in 1960 and the US National Medal of Science in 1974. The Abel Wolman Municipal Building, one of the largest buildings in Baltimore, MD (where he taught at Johns Hopkins), was named in his honor.
NOTES
1. Manasseh ben Israel, The Hope of Israel (London, 1652), reprinted in Manasseh ben Israel's Mission to Oliver Cromwell, edited by Lucien Wolf (London, 1901, pp. 50-51).
2. Winston Churchill, History of the English-Speaking Peoples, Vol. 1 (Cassell, London, 1956).
3. Frank Heynick, Jews and Medicine: An Epic Saga (KTAV, Hoboken, NJ, 2002).
4. Ibid., p. 123.
5. Ibid., pp. 124,130-131.
6. Ibid., p. 13.
7. For statistics on Vienna, see Vienna and the Jews, 1867-1938: A Cultural History, by Steven Beller (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1989, pp. 36-
37); on Berlin, see
Germany Without

Wow.
To be honest I thought this post would fuck the thread.

[Akzle]

Taxes. Whachyagonnado? I feel I pay way too much tax. And insurance - saps my take home.

weell, since insuranse is paying jews in case of niggers, and i'm going to abolish jewry and niggerdom, that'll disappear. (and if nigger does happen then you get jewed)

tax will remain for a while until we can get rid of the monetary system.

[crack]

To be honest I thought this post would fuck the thread.

So did I!:devil2:

[Akzle]

w. Saw your avatar and was a bit taken aback. One of our more interesting members used it a few years back.

You mean while I have been incarcerated, (I didnt kill them honestly) :laugh:and undergone years of rectal prodding in the showers, someone stole my AVATAR!:2guns:

I did see a brief mention of The Jewish Culture on here.

I do not subscribe to anti semanticism, anti-semitic Ideology.

My reasoning is that I have studied history, & Jewish History, and their is no doubt they are our creators, (whoever you wish to call him) chosen people.

The Jewish people make up Under 1% of the worlds population, yet their contributions to Human Kind is HUGE.

A dear and now passed on, friend and colleague, "Steve" AKA JAWS, as a young Pilot officer saw service in the last months of world war two, he was detailed to fly politicians and those accused of war crimes, he and his mates went to the camps of extermination and visited to look at the accused of these horrendous crimes, he said they looked just like you and me, He could not figure out what had gone on in their head.

When they saw the "Bitch of Bergen-Belsen" we wanted to see how ugly this bitch "Irma Grese" was and we took bets as to who amongst us would do her if able! (young guys in their late teens/early 20's).

When they were taken to see her, she was used to having visits from such as Jaws and his mates, out of human interest, she did not like it, she apparently screamed, and nutted off that the polish guard entered her cell, punched her, threw her to the ground, then kicked her with his hobbed boats in the ribs so hard they heard the crack:

He/ dear old Steve, said he still dreamt of this ugly cow and her pure hatred, it shocked and scared him and his mates, (no one did her:laugh:)

They went along to watch her Hang instead.

Have a read if you wish, I leave it to you to form your own opinion.

y Luana Goriss
Updated July 03, 2017
Considering that the Jewish people constitute a mere one-half of one percent of the world's population, Jewish contributions to religion, science, literature, music, medicine, finance, philosophy, entertainment etc., is staggering.

In the field of medicine alone, Jewish contributions are staggering and continue to be so. It was a Jew who created the first polio vaccine, who discovered insulin, who discovered that aspirin dealt with pain, who discovered chloral hydrate for convulsions, who discovered streptomycin, who discovered the origin and spread of infectious diseases, who invented the test for diagnosis of syphilis, who identified the first cancer virus, who discovered the cure for pellagra and added to the knowledge about yellow fever, typhoid, typhus, measles, diphtheria and influenza.

Today, Israel, a nation only sixty years old, has emerged at the forefront of stem-cell research, which will, in the near future, give humanity unprecedented medical treatment for degenerative diseases.

There is a passage in the Talmud that says: “We find in the case of Cain, who killed his brother, that it is written: The bloods of thy brother cry unto me: not the blood of thy brother, but the bloods of thy brother is said, that is, his blood and the blood of his potential descendants.” (Sanhedrin 37a, 37-38.)

Over the past 2,000 years in particular, millions of Jews have been killed in Inquisitions, Pogroms, and more recently, the horror of the Holocaust. One wonders how much more humanity could have gained from the descendants of those murdered and their potential contributions to mankind.

Below is a short list of some of the most important contributions Jewish individuals have made to society.

Jewish Contributions to Society
Albert Einstein Physicist
Jonas Salk Created first Polio Vaccine.
Albert Sabin Developed the oral vaccine for Polio.
Galileo Discovered the speed of light
Selman Waksman Discovered Streptomycin. Coined the word 'antibiotic'.
Gabriel Lipmann Discovered color photography.
Baruch Blumberg Discovered origin and spread of infectious diseases.
G. Edelman Discovered chemical structure of antibodies.
Briton Epstein Identified first cancer virus.
Maria Meyer Structure of atomic nuclei.
Julius Mayer Discovered law of thermodynamics.
Sigmund Freud Father of Psychotherapy.
Christopher Columbus (Marano) Discovered the Americas.
Benjamin Disraeli Prime Minister of Great Britain 1804-1881
Isaac Singer Invented the sewing machine.
Levi Strauss Largest manufacturer of Denim Jeans.
Joseph Pulitzer Established 'Pulitzer Prize' for achievements in journalism, literature, music & art.

And the remnant of Jacob shall be in the midst of many peoples, as dew from the Lord, as showers upon the grass..." MICAH 5:6*

JEWISH NOBEL PRIZE WINNERS
CHEMISTRY
ECONOMICS
LITERATURE
MEDICINE
PEACE
PHYSICS
JEWS IN ANTHROPOLOGY
JEWS IN BIOMEDICAL SCIENCE
JEWS IN CHEMISTRY
JEWS IN CHESS
JEWS IN COMPUTER & INFORMATION SCIENCE
JEWS IN ECONOMICS
JEWS IN LINGUISTICS
JEWS IN LITERATURE
JEWS IN MATHEMATICS
JEWS IN MUSIC
JEWS IN PHILOSOPHY
JEWS IN PHYSICS
JEWS IN PSYCHOLOGY
JEWS IN SOCIOLOGY
REFLECTIONS ON JUDAISM AND THE JEWS
THE WHAT, WHY, & WHO OF THIS WEBSITE

The purpose of this website is to provide an online resource that accurately describes the Jewish contribution to the cultural, scientific, and technological evolution of civilization. Although there are scores of websites currently on the Internet that purport to characterize the Jews and their impact on the world, nearly all of them are sponsored by groups whose ultimate objectives vis-à-vis the Jews range from defamation to outright elimination. Many of the classic works of the anti-Semitic canon, once confined to the fever swamps, have become widely available via these websites, a few of which actually display legal disclaimers concerning their potential for incitement to "unlawful or criminal acts." (The composer Arnold Schoenberg once asked in this connection: "What is anti-Semitism to lead to if not acts of violence? Is it so difficult to imagine that?")

JINFO.ORG has no outside organizational affiliation or sponsorship. The website is an evolving project with new sections being added periodically. Statistical metrics are extensively employed because they are the most efficient technique for objectively summarizing and conveying an overall view of the large quantities of data involved.

Concerning Jewish identity, the vast majority (over 90%) of the individuals listed here as being Jewish are such by virtue of having had two Jewish parents. Also included, however, are individuals with one Jewish parent, as well as a number of Jews-by-choice, with the listings of individuals in the latter two categories qualified as such. In adopting this criterion for inclusion, we have followed the practice employed by the Jewish encyclopedias for more than a century.

CONTACT JINFO.ORG

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Reproduction of any part of this website
without the express, prior written permission of JINFO.ORG is prohibited.

* The passage numbered Micah 5:6 in Jewish Bibles is numbered 5:7 in Christian Bibles.
JEWS IN THE MEDICAL & LIFE SCIENCES
JINFO.ORG
Prior to presenting his appeal to Oliver Cromwell for the readmission of the Jews, who had been expelled from England in 1290, Manasseh ben Israel wrote in The Hope of Israel 1: "Hence it may be seen that God hath not left us; for if one persecutes us, another receives us civilly and courteously; and if this prince treats us ill, another treats us well; if one banisheth us out of his country, another invites us with a thousand privileges ... and do we not see that those Republiques do flourish and much increase in trade who admit the Israelites?" But it was not for their economic prowess alone that the Jews were valued, it was for a whole host of skills, not the least of which was their expertise in the medical arts.

Winston Churchill, writing of the expulsion referred to above, states: "The Jews, held up to universal hatred, were pillaged, maltreated, and finally expelled from the realm. Exception was made for certain physicians without whose skill persons of consequence might have lacked due attention."2 Indeed, more often than not, the chief court physicians of the rulers of Europe were Jews or crypto-Jews. To cite but a few examples, Frederick III of the Holy Roman Empire, Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, Elizabeth I of England, Louis XIV of France, Catherine de Medici, and Catherine the Great of Russia all at one time or another employed Jewish personal physicians.3 Nor was it only the secular rulers of Christendom that depended on Jewish medical skills. As the Spanish philosopher and theologian Ramon Lull (Raymond Lully) complained in the thirteenth century: "Jews are universally entrusted by the great with the care of their health. Nor is the Church free from this abomination, for nearly every monastery has its Jewish physician."4 Among the many Popes who maintained Jewish personal physicians were Martin IV, Nicholas IV, Boniface VIII, Alexander VI, Julius II, Leo X, Clement VII, Paul III, Gregory XV, Urban VIII, and Innocent X.5

Much the same situation prevailed in Dar al-Islam, where, e.g., Maimonides served as court physician to Saladin the Great's Vizier Al-Fadhil and later to Saladin's son and successor. Jews also figured prominently as translators and transmitters to the Moslem world of the medical scholarship of the ancient Greeks, and would later play a similar role in transmitting to Europe the scholarship of Moslem physicians such as Avicenna. In the late Middle Ages, the Jews, numbering only about 1% of Europe's population, constituted roughly half of its physicians.6 During the last of the great European Jewish expulsions in the 1930s, the medical centers of Vienna and Berlin lost nearly half of their physicians and the majority of their medical school faculties.7 Many fled to America, helping to fuel its meteoric rise to preeminence in biomedical research; Jews have accounted for some 40% of US Nobel Prizes in medicine and constitute over one-third of the combined membership of the life sciences divisions of the US National Academy of Sciences and its affiliated Institute of Medicine.

The following links contain lists of prominent Jewish scientists and recipients of major international awards in the biomedical field. The last link below contains an analysis showing that of all the lives saved by all the scientific and medical advances in human history, more than three-fourths of those lives were saved by advances for which Jews constituted fifty percent or more of the principal developers.
Jewish Biomedical & Life Scientists
Jewish Recipients of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (27% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the Lasker Award in Basic Medical Research (32% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the Gairdner Foundation Awards (26% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the Wolf Prize in Medicine (41% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize (43% of recipients)
Jewish Recipients of the GM Cancer Research Foundation Sloan Prize (38% of recipients)
Jews Among the Creators of History's Greatest Lifesaving Medical & Scientific Advances (estimated 2.8 billion lives saved)
Some of the more notable Jewish contributions to the medical and biological sciences in the modern era are listed below. (The names of non-Jewish scientists mentioned in the accompanying discussion have been denoted with the superscript "+" in order to avoid confusion.)

The invention of local anesthesia by Carl Koller and the discovery of Novocaine by Alfred Einhorn.
The discovery that pancreatic dysfunction is the cause of diabetes by Oskar Minkowski (together with Joseph von Mering+) and the subsequent discovery that this dysfunction involves a deficiency in the hormonal secretions of the islets of Langerhans by Moses Barron. The work of the Canadian team that isolated insulin (Banting+, Best+, Collip+, and Macleod+) was based on these two prior discoveries.
The discovery of the ABO and other human blood groups and of the Rh factor by Karl Landsteiner. (The M, N, and P blood groups were co-discovered with Philip Levine and the Rh factor was co-discovered with Alexander Wiener). Landsteiner received the 1930 Nobel Prize for this work, which made safe blood transfusions possible for the first time. Landsteiner is also considered to be one of the giants of immunology, having made major contributions to the understanding of the chemical basis of antigen-antibody Jews, by Bernt Engelmann (Bantam, New York, 1984, pp. 59-60).
8. Billy Woodward et al., Scientists Greater than Einstein: The Biggest Lifesavers of the Twentieth Century (Linden, Chicago, 2009, pp. 315, 321).
9. Heynick, Jews and Medicine: An Epic Saga, p.461.
10. See http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1119266.
11. See profile of Michael S. Levine by Karen Hopkin in The Scientist (Vol. 21, No. 3, 2007, p. 58).
12. Endless Forms Most Beautiful: The New Science of Evo Devo, by Sean Carroll (W.W. Norton, New York, 2005, p. 9).
13. See Discovering the RNA Double Helix and Hybridization, by Alexander Varshavsky in Cell (Vol. 127, 29 December 2006, pp. 1295-1297).
14. The image reconstruction algorithm employed in all tomographic imaging is based on the Radon transform, which was invented by the Austrian mathematician Johann Radon+ in 1917. In his paper, Radon+ states that his result is based on the prior work of Hermann Minkowski and Paul Funk. Minkowski was the younger brother of the above-mentioned physiologist Oskar Minkowski. Paul Funk was a Czech-Jewish mathematician who survived internment in the Nazi concentration camp at Terezín (Theresienstadt). Gábor Frank obtained the first patents for x-ray tomographic scanning (1938 patents in both Hungary and Germany). Unlike Funk, he did not return from the camps. See Made in Hungary, by Andrew Simon (Simon Publications, Safety Harbor, FL, 1999, p. 266).
A Brief History
On June 19, 1269, the King of France, Louis IX, ordered that any Jew found in any public place not wearing the obligatory yellow badge would be fined 10 livres of silver. (Note: The livre was the monetary unit in France before 1795 when they came up with the franc. The word stems from the Latin word for “pound” and the original livre in 781 CE was 1 pound of silver.) People of Jewish faith or lineage have suffered discrimination and worse for many centuries. Meanwhile, many Jewish scientists, composers, educators, and artists of all types among others have enriched mankind. For example, 3 of the 7 justices on the US Supreme Court are Jewish. (Some of the inventions of Jews; safety razor, printed circuit board, cell phone, transistor, computer mouse, defibrillator, Esperanto, video tape, the Corvette, and the cotton swab.) Here we list 10 of the greatest contributions of people of Jewish background to the United States and the World. Who else would you include? (Note: The arbitrary order listed does not denote relative value of the contribution.)

Digging Deeper
10. Julius Fromm, Latex Condom.


With the loosening of sexual inhibitions after the prudish Victorian age, people obviously needed protection against unwanted pregnancy and disease. Condoms then were made of natural “skin” substances (animal intestines) and of rubber. The rubber condoms were made by wrapping layers of rubber around a mold and then cooking it. Fromm invented a way to make the latex liquid and manufacture the condoms by dipping a mold into the liquid. His invention was made in 1916, and the thinner, cheaper condom was a big success throughout Europe. He also invented the condom vending machine in 1928, leading to the gas station bathroom graffiti, “Don’t buy this gum, it tastes like rubber!”

9. Ruth Handler, Barbie Doll.


Ranking close to the Teddy Bear in the hearts of American children, Barbie has kept girls company since 1959. Handler and her husband were co-founders of Mattel (with Harold Matson) and were manufacturing plastic items such as picture frames when Ruth got the inspiration for Barbie from their daughter, Barbara. The invention of Barbie has made millions of little girls happy and millions of parents wondering where their money went when Barbie “needed” all those accessories.

8. Morris Michtom, Teddy Bear.


Taking inspiration from a cartoon of President Teddy Roosevelt showing a little bear mercy while hunting, Morris and his wife Rose created the Teddy Bear and turned it into an American icon. Cracked fact: Their daughter appeared in 40+ episodes of the television show, Get Smart as a background character.

7. Benjamin Disraeli, British Statesman.


Although born a Sephardic Jew, Disraeli’s father had his family switch to Anglican when Ben was 12, obviously to blend in to British society. (Anglican is the state religion of the United Kingdom.) Disraeli went on to a distinguished career in British politics, serving as Prime Minister and as Chancellor of the Exchequer, as well as a Conservative member of Parliament.

6. Laszlo Biro, Ball Point Pen.


Just think, before 1944 when this Hungarian Jew invented the ball point pen, there were no copy machines and the use of carbon paper to make handwritten copies must have been horrendous with a fountain pen. Smudge free writing and many times less likely to cause a laundry disaster than a fountain pen. Thanks Laszlo!

5. Claude Levi-Strauss, Anthropology.


No he did not invent blue jeans (probably wishes he did!). Claude is called the Father of Modern Anthropology for his work concerning structuralism and structural anthropology. He also studied mythology and applied his structuralist approach to that field. President of France (at the time) Nicolas Sarkozy called him “The greatest ethnologist of our time.” upon his death at age 100 in 2009. Born in Belgium, Levi-Strauss spent most of his life in France.

4. J. Robert Oppenheimer and Edward Teller, Nuclear Physics.


Whether you think nuclear weapons are a good thing or not, Oppenheimer is considered the Father of the Atomic Bomb and Teller is considered the Father of the Hydrogen Bomb. Both were born into Jewish families and both worked in the United States, although Teller was born in Hungary. The fact that these scientists enabled the US to be the first to get nuclear weapons may well have prevented a catastrophe for the Western world had the Soviets or Chinese gotten such weapons first.

3. Sanford “Sandy” Koufax, Baseball.


Born Sanford Braun, Koufax played only 11 years of big league baseball, but what spectacular years they were. He pitched 4 no hitters, struck out 2396 batters and had a career ERA of 2.76. Along with Nolan Ryan, Koufax is one of only two pitchers in the Hall of Fame that struck out more batters than innings they pitched. Amazing fact: In Koufax’s last year (1966) he was 27-9 with a 1.73 ERA! His salary for that fantastic season; a career high $125,000. Koufax famously refused to pitch a World Series game on Yom Kippur, a Jewish holy day.

2. Sigmund Schlomo Freud, Psychoanalysis.


This Austrian Jew is the Father of Psychoanalysis and as such greatly influenced those psychiatrists that came after him. His research and thinking is some of the most influential and insightful delving into the human mind of all time. Cracked fact: Freud thought that the fear of castration among males is provoked by uncircumcised boys seeing boys that are circumcised and as such this constitutes the root of anti-Semitism. Additionally, Freud thought that belief in God is an “illusion” and basically exists to calm man’s fear of “nature” and death.

1. Albert Einstein, Science.


Among other things, Einstein is most famous for his Special and General Theories of Relativity, and for his equation, E= MC2². Often referred to as the smartest man in history, Einstein was in the United States when Hitler and the Nazis took power in Germany where Einstein had been working as a professor in Berlin. Einstein chose to stay in the US as he rightly figured going back to Germany was suicidal. Fun facts: No one knows what Einstein’s last words were because he spoke them in German and no German speaking person was present. Recently discovered correspondence indicates that Einstein was probably an atheist, although he never said so publicly.

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What the Jewish people have done militarily for their tiny nation, has the respect of their allies , and their enemies alike.

:Offtopic:
interaction.
The development of the sodium citrate blood storage technique by Richard Lewisohn. Prior to Lewisohn's work in 1913, blood could not be stored and had to be transfused directly between donor and recipient. The use of sodium citrate as an anticoagulant, together with the use of refrigeration (introduced by Richard Weil), permitted creation of the first blood banks. Lewisohn and Karl Landsteiner (see above) are considered to be the two researchers most responsible for the invention of modern blood transfusion, which is estimated to have saved in excess of one billion lives since the 1950s alone, making it the single greatest lifesaving medical advance in history.8
The introduction of the side-chain theory of antibody formation by Paul Ehrlich, which has evolved into clonal selection theory, the central paradigm of modern immunology. Ehrlich shared the 1908 Nobel Prize with Élie Metchnikoff* for their independent contributions to immunology. Ehrlich is also considered to be the founder of modern chemotherapeutic medicine. His development of Salvarsan (1909) and Neosalvarsan (1911) constituted the first effective treatment for syphilis and, in the words of Sir Alexander Fleming+, "the beginning - and a magnificent beginning - of bacterial chemotherapy." 9
The isolation and development of penicillin by Sir Ernst Chain. Chain shared the 1945 Nobel Prize for this work with Sir Alexander Fleming+ and Sir Howard Florey+. It was Chain who recognized the potential of Fleming's+ nearly forgotten discovery of the antibacterial properties of Penicillium molds (one of many agents then known to have such properties). Chain, a biochemist, was able to isolate the active antibacterial substance, viz., penicillin, and to work out its molecular structure (later confirmed in the Nobel-Prize-winning x-ray diffraction work of Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin+). Using samples that Chain produced, Chain and Florey+ demonstrated penicillin's stability, nontoxicity, and effectiveness against staphylococcal, streptococcal, and clostridial infections in laboratory animals and humans.
The development of streptomycin by Selman Waksman and Albert Schatz. Waksman received the 1952 Nobel Prize for this work, which created the first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis, for which (in combination with other drugs) it remains a therapeutic mainstay.
The development of isoniazid by Herbert Fox and Harry Yale. Although isoniazid, the leading drug used in the treatment of tuberculosis since the mid-1950s, was first synthesized in 1912 by Josef Mally+ and Hans Leopold Meyer (who later died in the Nazi concentration camp at Terezín), its anti-tubercular properties were not discovered until the early 1950s, when it was independently re-synthesized and clinically explored by three separate groups. These were headed, respectively, by Fox at Hoffmann-La Roche, Yale at Squibb, and Gerhard Domagk+ at Bayer. Isoniazid, used early on in combination with streptomycin and a third drug, para-amino salicylic acid (PAS), and more recently in combination with other drugs, has saved over a hundred million lives since the 1950s. (PAS was developed by Jörgen Lehmann+ in Denmark, based on studies carried out by Frederick Bernheim in the US. In these studies, Bernheim established the metabolic role of salicylic acid in the tubercle bacillus. PAS is basically designed to interfere with these salicylate-dependant metabolic processes, ultimately impairing or killing the bacillus.) In a related, but separate development, iproniazid, an isoniazid derivative first synthesized by Fox in 1951 as a potential anti-tubercular agent, was found to have powerful anti-depressant effects. It subsequently became the basis for the MAOIs (mono-amine oxidase inhibitors) that revolutionized the treatment of clinical depression in the post-war period.
The isolation of cortisone by Tadeus Reichstein. Reichstein shared the 1950 Nobel Prize with Edward Kendall+ and Philip Hench+. Reichstein and Kendall+ were recognized for having independently isolated and characterized the hormones of the adrenal cortex, the most important of which was cortisone.
The chemical synthesis of cortisone by Lewis Sarett*, Max Tishler, and Carl Djerassi. Sarett, working under Tishler at Merck, achieved the first chemical synthesis of the compound. With subsequent improvements by Tishler, Sarett's synthesis made cortisone a commercially available drug for the first time. Further advances achieved independently by Djerassi and by Percy Julian+ made economically viable, large-scale production possible. Sarett, Tishler, and Djerassi were all awarded US National Medals of Science (in 1975, 1987, and 1973, respectively).
The development of aspirin by Arthur Eichengrun and Felix Hoffmann+. Aspirin is an artificially modified form of salicylic acid, a naturally occurring substance that can be obtained from the bark of willow trees, whose analgesic properties have been known since antiquity. Salicylic acid is, however, very poorly tolerated by the digestive system, which greatly limits its medicinal value. Early attempts to reduce its toxicity through acetylation failed to yield acetylsalicylic acid of sufficient purity to be medicinally useful. The first successful synthesis of pure acetylsalicylic acid was achieved in 1897 by Felix Hoffmann+, working at F. Bayer & Co. in Germany. Recently developed evidence indicates, however, that credit for this development should have gone equally, or even predominantly, to Hoffmann's+ Jewish supervisor, Arthur Eichengrun.10
The discovery of prostaglandins by M. W. Goldblatt. (Also discovered independently by Ulf von Euler+.) Sir John Vane* was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1982 for demonstrating that the anti-inflammatory and analgesic action of aspirin-like drugs was via their inhibition of prostaglandin production. Vane also discovered the vasodilator prostacyclin, which led directly to the development of the ACE inhibitors that are widely used in the treatment of hypertension, heart failure, and other vascular diseases. The development of the COX-2 selective inhibitors (such as the "super-aspirin" Celebrex, widely used by severe arthritis sufferers) was largely the work of Philip Needleman.
The discovery of neurotransmitters by Otto Loewi. Loewi shared the 1936 Nobel Prize with Sir Henry Dale+ for their independent work on acetylcholine. Sir Bernard Katz and Julius Axelrod shared the 1970 Nobel Prize with Ulf von Euler+ for advanced work on neurotransmitters. Their work led directly to the development of the class of anti-depressants that includes Prozac, Zoloft, and Paxil. Axelrod, together with Bernard Brodie, Leon Greenberg, and David Lester, was largely responsible for the development of the pain reliever acetaminophen (Tylenol).
The discovery of endorphins and enkephalins by Solomon Snyder and Hans Kosterlitz, respectively. The discovery by Snyder of the opioid receptors in the mammalian nervous system led to the further discovery of endorphins and enkephalins, endogenous opioids that help to control mood and pain. The opioid receptors play a large role in the action of pain killers such as morphine. This new understanding of opioid action has in turn led to the development of synthetic pain killing substitutes with diminished potential for addiction. Snyder and Kosterlitz shared the 1978 Lasker Award in Basic Medical Research for this work.
The discovery and characterization of growth factors by Rita Levi-Montalcini, Viktor Hamburger, and Stanley H. Cohen. Levi-Montalcini and Cohen shared the 1986 Nobel Prize for their identification and isolation of the nerve and epidermal growth factors, respectively. Growth factors (others of which were subsequently discovered) are protein molecular "signals" emitted by cells to control growth and differentiation in neighboring cells. Cohen also elucidated the biochemical pathways through which growth factors act after binding to receptors on the outer membranes of target cells. Growth factors play a large role in embryonic development and are thought to have potential medical application in nerve regeneration, accelerated wound healing, and in the understanding and control of tumor cell proliferation. The "blockbuster" drug Herceptin for treating breast and other cancers is based, in part, on Cohen's epidermal growth factor research.
The development of Warfarin (Coumadin) anticoagulant therapy by Shepard Shapiro. Warfarin is the most commonly used anticoagulant for the prevention of heart attacks and strokes. It is also one of the most widely prescribed medications in the world. It was discovered in 1946 by Karl Paul Link+, who developed it as a rat poison. Its identification and development for use in human anticoagulant therapy resulted from the work of Shapiro in the early 1950s. Previously, in the early 1940s, Shapiro had pioneered the clinical use of the anti-clotting agent methylene dicoumarin (dicoumarol), which was also discovered by Link+.
The development of oral contraceptives by Gregory Pincus, Carl Djerassi, and Frank Colton.
The development of the Salk and Sabin polio vaccines by Jonas Salk and Albert Sabin, respectively. The resulting worldwide near-eradication of polio is estimated to be preventing over one-half million new cases of lifelong paralysis each year. The discovery that the causative agent in polio was, in fact, a virus was made in 1908 by Karl Landsteiner and Erwin Popper.
The development of the hepatitis-B vaccine by Baruch Blumberg and Irving Millman. Blumberg received the 1976 Nobel Prize, in part for this work, which has saved an estimated six-to-seven million lives.
The co-discovery of interferon by Alick Isaacs (in collaboration with Jean Lindenmann+). The large-scale production of recombinant interferon for medical use (a market currently in excess of $15 billion annually) is based largely on the work of Charles Weissmann and Sidney Pestka. Pestka received the US National Medal of Technology in 2001. Interferons are widely used in the treatment of multiple sclerosis, leukemias and lymphomas, melanomas, and hepatitis B and C.
The co-invention of monoclonal antibodies by César Milstein. Milstein shared the 1984 Nobel Prize with Georges Köhler+ for this work. Four of the top ten "blockbuster" anti-cancer drugs, including the top three, are now based on monoclonal antibody technology. The development of all four drugs was based on the application of this research to other research conducted by Jewish scientists. Specifically, Rituxan is based on the non-Hodgkin's lymphoma research of Ronald Levy; Avastin is based on the angiogenesis research pioneered by Judah Folkman; Herceptin is based on the the epidermal growth factor research of Stanley H. Cohen and the HER-2/neu protein research of Robert Weinberg, Jeffrey Drebin, and Mark Greene; and Erbitux is based on research by Michael Sela and John Mendelsohn. The combined annual sales of these four drugs are in excess of $20 billion. (Of the remaining six "small molecule" drugs among the top ten blockbuster anti-cancer agents, at least two are based on the research of Jewish scientists. Specifically, Velcade is based on work by Julian Adams, Avram Hershko, Alexander Varshavsky, Aaron Ciechanover, and Irwin Rose; and Gleevec is based, in part, on the research of Brian Druker.)
The invention of cancer chemotherapy by Louis Goodman, Alfred Gilman, and Sidney Farber. In the early 1940s, Goodman and Gilman discovered the effectiveness of mechlorethamine ("nitrogen mustard") in the treatment of lymphatic malignancies. In the late 1940s, Farber produced the first chemically induced remissions from leukemia using the folic acid inhibitors aminopterin and methotrexate. Eventually mechlorethamine and methotrexate, used in combination with other anti-cancer agents (mechlorethamine is the "M" in MOPP) and radiation, would lead to cures for many previously fatal lymphomas and leukemias, respectively.
The co-development of 6-MP (6-mercaptopurine) by Gertrude Elion, which used in combination with methotrexate and other drugs, has led to cures for most forms of childhood leukemia. Elion was also the co-developer of azathioprine (Imuran), the immunosuppressant that made organ transplants possible between individuals other than identical twins, and of acyclovir (Zovirax) for the treatment of herpes viral infections. Elion and George Hitchings+ received the 1988 Nobel Prize for their joint work.
The discovery and development of cisplatin by Barnett Rosenberg, which has led to a complete reversal in the prognosis for testicular cancer, a malignancy that had almost always been fatal and is now roughly 90% curable. The chemotherapeutic protocols for the use of cisplatin in the treatment and cure of testicular cancer were developed by Lawrence Einhorn (who supervised the successful treatment of Tour de France champion Lance Armstrong+).
The revolutionizing of radiation oncology by Henry Kaplan. Kaplan, the long-time head of radiology at Stanford Medical School, introduced the use of megavolt x-ray therapy in the 1950s, using linear accelerators (LINACs) to generate the required high-energy radiation. The medical LINAC is now the primary tool used in radiation oncology worldwide. Since the 1950s, an estimated forty million cancer patients have received such radiation treatments. (Currently about half of all cancer patients receive radiotherapy, primarily from LINAC-generated x-rays.) Even more significantly, Kaplan and his associates demonstrated that radiotherapy could be employed as a curative, rather than a merely palliative, cancer treatment. By the late 1970s, using radiotherapy protocols largely developed by Kaplan and his group, cure rates of 70%-80% were being achieved in patients with early-stage Hodgkin's lymphoma, which had previously been a uniformly fatal disease. Kaplan and Saul Rosenberg were the first to apply chemotherapy as an adjunct to radiation therapy in Hodgkin's disease, their regimens achieving initial cure rates in the late 1970s of 30%-40% in late-stage Hodgkin's disease. (With subsequent dramatic improvements in chemotherapy, the primary and secondary roles of radiation and chemotherapy have been reversed; cure rates are now 98% in early-stage Hodgkin's disease and 85% in advanced disease.) Kaplan and his associates were also responsible for the clinical trial studies that established the utility of the histopathologic classification scheme for non-Hodgkin's lymphomas proposed by Henry Rappaport in 1956. Although not widely accepted at the time, the Rappaport classification (with subsequent modifications) has become the most widely used in the staging and treatment of non-Hodgkin's lymphomas. For his pioneering work in radiation oncology, Kaplan became in 1969 the only biomedical scientist to be awarded the prestigious Atoms for Peace Award.
The co-discovery of oncogenes by Harold Varmus and the elucidation of their role in human cancer by Robert Weinberg, Michael Wigler, Bert Vogelstein, Arnold Levine, and others. Varmus shared the 1989 Nobel Prize with Michael Bishop+ for this work.
The discovery of retroviruses and their associated reverse transcriptase enzyme by David Baltimore and Howard Temin. Baltimore and Temin shared the 1975 Nobel Prize for their independent discovery of these viruses, which are implicated in AIDS and in some cancers, and whose existence disproved the "central dogma" of molecular biology.
The development of AZT, protease inhibitors, and other drugs used in the treatment of AIDS by Jerome Horwitz, Samuel Broder, and Irving Sigal. AZT (Retrovir), which was originally synthesized by Horwitz for use as an anti-cancer agent, proved to be the first of the reverse transcriptase inhibitors found effective against HIV. Its identification as such in clinical trials was largely the result of efforts led by Broder, who also co-developed two other reverse transcriptase inhibitors (ddl and ddC). Sigal, who was senior director of molecular biology at Merck prior to his death in the 1988 bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland, was the first to demonstrate the effectiveness of protease inhibitors against HIV. Used in combination, the various reverse transcriptase and protease inhibitors have dramatically improved the outlook for AIDS patients.
The elucidation of the biochemistry of cellular metabolism by Otto Warburg*, Otto Meyerhof, Gustav Embden, Jacob Parnas, Sir Hans Krebs, Fritz Lipmann, Herman Kalckar, Carl Neuberg, Gerty Cori, Konrad Bloch, and others. This includes much of the basic work on glycolysis (Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway), the urea and citric acid cycles (Krebs cycles), the pentose phosphate pathway, and oxidative phosphorylation and the role of ATP, as well as significant contributions to the characterization of glycogen and fatty acid metabolism. Warburg, Meyerhof, Krebs, Lipmann, Cori, and Bloch all received Nobel Prizes.
The invention of radioisotopic tracer techniques by George de Hevesy, Friedrich Paneth, Rudolf Schoenheimer, David Rittenberg, Martin Kamen, William Hassid, and Samuel Ruben. Hevesy and Paneth introduced the general technique, for which Hevesy won the 1943 Nobel Prize in chemistry; Kamen and Ruben discovered the long-lived carbon-14 radioisotope, which has had widespread application in biology (and is also the basis of radiocarbon dating). Melvin Calvin employed carbon-14 to elucidate the so-called dark reactions of photosynthesis, for which he was awarded the 1961 Nobel Prize in chemistry. (Others who made major contributions to the understanding of photosynthesis include the physicist George Feher and the Nobel laureates James Franck, Richard Willstätter, and Otto Warburg*.)
The invention of radioimmunoassay by Rosalyn Yalow and Solomon Berson, which has revolutionized clinical and research practice in such fields as endocrinology and blood banking. The technique, which can be made exquisitely sensitive to trace amounts (nano- and pico-molar concentrations) of specific blood substances, is employed in measuring the levels of most hormones, screening donated blood for hepatitis-B virus, and in allergy and drug level testing. Yalow received the Nobel Prize in 1977 for this work. (Berson died in 1972.)
The determination of key components of the experimental basis for the double helix model of DNA by Phoebus Levene, Erwin Chargaff, and Rosalind Franklin. In 1929, Levene discovered that DNA contains a sugar called deoxyribose and that it consists of a chain of what he termed "nucleotides," units composed of the deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate group, and one of four purine or pyrimidine bases. (The purine and pyrimidine molecular base constituents of DNA were discovered by the German biochemist Albrecht Kossel+.) Levene incorrectly concluded that all four bases were present in equal proportions. Chargaff, however, showed that the four bases were, in fact, present in specific pairwise ratios ([adenine]=[thymine] =/= [guanine]=[cytosine]), implying both structural base pairing and base coding of the genetic information. Finally, Rosalind Franklin's x-ray crystallographic studies of DNA provided the clear evidence for a double helical structure. The theoretical model of Watson+ and Crick+ was largely based on the experimental data provided by the aforementioned chemical and structural analyses.
The breaking of the genetic code by Marshall Nirenberg. Nirenberg and Har Gobind Khorana+ shared the 1968 Nobel Prize for their independent determinations of the code.
The co-discovery of the basic mechanisms of gene regulation by François Jacob, Walter Gilbert, Mark Ptashne, Andrew Fire, Gary Ruvkun, Howard Cedar, Aharon Razin, Michael Grunstein, and Michael Levine. Jacob shared the 1965 Nobel Prize with Jacques Monod+ for their joint work on the development of the operon-repressor model of gene regulation, which was experimentally confirmed by Gilbert, who isolated the lac operon repressor (but whose 1980 Nobel Prize in chemistry was in recognition of other work), and by Ptashne, whose exploration of the phage lambda switch greatly elucidated the process by which regulatory proteins (repressors) switch on and off gene expression. Fire co-discovered RNA interference, an RNA-based gene control process, for which he shared a Nobel Prize in 2006. A second RNA-based gene control mechanism involving short strands of RNA called microRNA was co-discovered by Ruvkun. Cedar and Razin shared the 2008 Wolf Prize in Medicine for their role in the discovery of DNA methylation, which together with histone modification, co-discovered by Grunstein, forms the basis of the new field of epigenetics, which deals with the molecular mechanisms involved in gene activation and suppression by environmental influences. Levine's work on the organization and function of the homeobox genes (which he co-discovered) "has done for animal development what the work on the lac operon and phage lambda did for understanding gene regulation in simpler organisms."11 The discovery of these master genes and their role in development has "shattered our previous notions of animal relationships and of what made animals different, and opened up a whole new way of looking at evolution."12
The discovery of RNA and major contributions to the elucidation of its structure and function by Phoebus Levene, François Jacob, Sydney Brenner, Matthew Meselson, Sol Spiegelman, Sidney Altman, Sir Aaron Klug, Alexander Rich, Leslie Orgel, Andrew Fire, Gary Ruvkun, Roger Kornberg, Ada Yonath, and others. RNA was first identified as a nucleic acid distinct from DNA by Levene in the course of his seminal studies of the nucleic acids in the early part of the twentieth century. The concept of messenger RNA (mRNA) as an information-bearing DNA-to-ribosome intermediary in protein synthesis was first formulated by Jacob and Jacques Monod+ in 1961 and subsequently verified in experiments conducted by Brenner, Jacob, Meselson, and Spiegelman. The surprising catalytic properties of RNA were independently discovered by Altman and by Thomas Cech+, supporting the concept of a pre-biotic "RNA world," first proposed in 1963 by Rich and, independently a few years later, by Orgel and others. Definitive x-ray diffraction studies of RNA structure were first carried out independently by Klug and by Rich. Rich co-discovered double helical RNA and went on to discover the more general process of nucleic acid hybridization, whose further development would "become the technical foundation of modern molecular biology."13 Nucleic acid hybridization, e.g., lies at the heart of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which has revolutionized molecular biological research practice. Double helical RNA has recently been found to play a role in the control of gene expression in a process called RNA interference (RNAi), which was co-discovered by Fire. Another RNA control process regulating gene expression that involves very short, single-stranded RNA molecules called microRNA (miRNA) was co-discovered by Ruvkun. In recent years, sophisticated x-ray crystallographic analyses using synchrotron radiation sources were developed and employed by Kornberg to elucidate the structural dynamics of RNA-polymerase-directed DNA-to-mRNA transcription. Cryo-crystallographic and synchrotron radiation techniques were also developed and used by Ada Yonath to elucidate the structural dynamics of the process of translation, i.e., ribosomal protein synthesis, which involves mRNA, rRNA (ribosomal RNA), and tRNA (transfer RNA). These studies have revealed the ribosome to be, in fact, a very complex ribozyme (RNA enzyme). Jacob, Brenner, Altman, Klug, Fire, Kornberg, and Yonath were all awarded Nobel Prizes. Rich received the US National Medal of Science in 1995.
The co-invention of gene splicing by Stanley N. Cohen. Cohen and Herbert Boyer's+ invention opened up the new field of genetic engineering. Cohen and Boyer+ were recipients of both the US National Medal of Science and the US National Medal of Technology. The latter award cited them "for their fundamental discovery of gene splicing techniques allowing replication in quantity of biomedically important new products, and beneficially transformed plant materials. This discovery of recombinant DNA technology has transformed the basic science of molecular biology and the biotechnology industry." Other major contributors to genetic engineering include Paul Berg, Walter Gilbert, and Daniel Nathans, all of whom received Nobel Prizes for their work.
The discovery of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) by I. I. Rabi. Rabi received the 1944 Nobel Prize in physics for the demonstration of NMR in molecular beams. Felix Bloch shared the 1952 Nobel Prize in physics with Edward Purcell+ for their independent inventions of condensed matter NMR spectroscopy, which is important in biomolecular structure studies, as well as being the basis of the MRI diagnostic imaging technique.14
The invention of the flexible endoscope by Basil Hirschowitz, which has revolutionized surgery by greatly reducing the complexity and invasiveness of many surgical procedures. (This work, undertaken in the mid-1950s, led to the production of the first glass-clad optical fibers, which later revolutionized modern telecommunications.)
The co-invention of LASIK eye surgery by Samuel Blum (together with Rangaswamy Srinivasan+ and James Wynne+).
The invention of phacoemulsification cataract surgery by Charles Kelman, which is the technique most widely used for cataract removal worldwide. More than two hundred million such operations have been performed. It has revolutionized the procedure by completely eliminating the need for hospitalization, which had previously averaged one week. Kelman was a recipient of both the US National Medal of Technology in 1992 and the Lasker Award for Clinical Medical Research in 2004 (posthumously).
The invention of the cardiac defibrillator, external pacemaker, and cardiac monitor by Paul Zoll. Zoll (and, independently, Wilson Greatbatch+ ) later invented the implantable cardiac pacemaker. Michel Mirowski and Morton Mower were two of the four inventors of the automatic, implantable cardiac defibrillator.
The invention of the Heimlich Maneuver by Henry Heimlich.
The co-invention of the basic technique used worldwide for the controlled chlorination of drinking water supplies by Abel Wolman. Wolman and Linn Enslow's+ invention resulted in a dramatic reduction in the incidence of such waterborne diseases as cholera, dysentery, and typhoid fever; as such, it was arguably the single most important contribution to public health in the twentieth century. The number of lives thereby saved has been variously estimated as running into the hundreds of millions. Wolman received both the Lasker Award for Public Service in 1960 and the US National Medal of Science in 1974. The Abel Wolman Municipal Building, one of the largest buildings in Baltimore, MD (where he taught at Johns Hopkins), was named in his honor.
NOTES
1. Manasseh ben Israel, The Hope of Israel (London, 1652), reprinted in Manasseh ben Israel's Mission to Oliver Cromwell, edited by Lucien Wolf (London, 1901, pp. 50-51).
2. Winston Churchill, History of the English-Speaking Peoples, Vol. 1 (Cassell, London, 1956).
3. Frank Heynick, Jews and Medicine: An Epic Saga (KTAV, Hoboken, NJ, 2002).
4. Ibid., p. 123.
5. Ibid., pp. 124,130-131.
6. Ibid., p. 13.
7. For statistics on Vienna, see Vienna and the Jews, 1867-1938: A Cultural History, by Steven Beller (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1989, pp. 36-
37); on Berlin, see
Germany Without

Double post, sorry.[/QUOTE]

your a retardation

[Berries]

Double post, sorry.

your a retardation
Comedy Au.

[/QUOTE]

[Banditbandit]

You install a $10mil automated timber processing machine, you pay $2.5 mil, and you borrow $7.5 mil @ 5.25% over 5 years:
your repayments are approx $1,893,750 per year, and approx $39,453.125 a week:
your machine can process 10 cubic meters an hour @$2500 per cube, and return you $5000 per cube, making you $2500 per cube per hour.
or $return you $200,000 per 8 hour shift, and $600,000 per 24 hour shift:

Now tell me Im a Moron and that time is not money?





You forgot to add in running costs.


And your taxes continue to increase to pay rising unemployment benefits and to cover the cost of rising social problems due to unemployment.

[oldrider]

VIDEO: Brendon O’Connell – “The Talpiot Program / The Key to Understanding Israel’s Power”

<iframe width="640" height="360" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/ujW7j9ROwUU" frameborder="0" allow="autoplay; encrypted-media" allowfullscreen></iframe>

Total article link: https://zionistreport.com/2018/02/brendon-oconnell-the-talpiot-program-the-key-to-understanding-israels-power/

[R650R]

http://www.nzherald.co.nz/hawkes-bay-today/news/article.cfm?c_id=1503462&objectid=12002264

Its a bit hot in our hospital Axzle... what would your minister of health do?????

Its always been HOT in HB, the local climate hasn't really changed at all... whats happened is people have gotten used to living and working in air conditioned environments...
Add to that everyone is generally fatter... bigger bodies more heat... then theres all the computerized gear and shit in there now, basically anything electric is a heater... plus most patients now prob have at least their own mini tv/dvd if not laptop and Ipad as well...
Then theres all the extra concrete outside for the carpark which is ALWAYS full...

Straight away they should grass over half the carpark at least, limit visitor numbers and ban all personal electronic devices... remember back in the day when they had a lounge with one tv....

[mashman]

Maybe you are doing "Voluntary work" (your choice):

:killingme@what followed


If time is money, why am I not paid to do what I currently do? That time is money to you, does not make it so across the board. Ask any volunteer, moron.

So what you're actually saying is that time isn't money, and that you are indeed just a moron that believes otherwise. Glad we cleared that up.

Chur.

[crack]

You forgot to add in running costs.


And your taxes continue to increase to pay rising unemployment benefits and to cover the cost of rising social problems due to unemployment.

Your cynicism! Have to make enough to pay for all the fucks that wont, or just want to breed and shove junk in their veins or mouth.:msn-wink:

[crack]

If time is money, why am I not paid to do what I currently do? That time is money to you, does not make it so across the board. Ask any volunteer, moron.

So what you're actually saying is that time isn't money, and that you are indeed just a moron that believes otherwise. Glad we cleared that up.

Chur.


He tangata maeneene

[R650R]

Where it all started going wrong, what say youy axle.... long intro before it gets good....


https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C7lhWp7G9rA

[Akzle]

Where it all started going wrong, what say youy axle.... long intro before it gets good....


https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C7lhWp7G9rA

it's on jewtube. so i'm not gna see it.

summarise it

[R650R]

it's on jewtube. so i'm not gna see it.

summarise it

I don’t see how that’s different to using Jewmoney to put petrol in the Magna....

Anyways, the original architects couldn’t get traction in Europe for their ideas as nobody liked their ideas... then they had to flee as they were all Jews and hitler rose to power... so they fled to the USA where the freedom of speech and association let them infect their ideas... But people still didn’t like their ideas, people liked their freedoms and functioning moral, safe societies. So they realised the only way they would win would be to destroy the current societies....
And that’s what we see still happening today, a vocal few force a minority view on the majority and make indecent depraved ideas seem normal... The video says it much better

[eldog]

. remember back in the day when they had a lounge with one tv....

yes I do, and the food delivered by patients with wired jaws.....

[Akzle]

I don’t see how that’s different to using Jewmoney to put petrol in the Magna....

Anyways, the original architects couldn’t get traction in Europe for their ideas as nobody liked their ideas... then they had to flee as they were all Jews and hitler rose to power... so they fled to the USA where the freedom of speech and association let them infect their ideas... But people still didn’t like their ideas, people liked their freedoms and functioning moral, safe societies. So they realised the only way they would win would be to destroy the current societies....
And that’s what we see still happening today, a vocal few force a minority view on the majority and make indecent depraved ideas seem normal... The video says it much better

ah. rather short and anthropocentric view of the thing you have there.

no-one likes the Jewish. they're the original master-race theorists. (cos sky-pixie said so)

classic divide-and-conquer.
'course, when all the money is in your control, it really doesn't matter who wins, as long as everyone is spending.